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ELECTICIfY 


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GIFT  OF 


DE  WITT  &  SWELLING 
BOOKSELLERS 

8  TELECBAPH  AVE.  OAKLAND.  CAL. 


THE    FARMER'S    PRACTICAL   LIBRARY 

EDITED  BY  ERNEST  INGERSOLL 


ELECTRICITY  FOR 
THE  FARM  AND  HOME 

BY 
FRANK   KOESTER 


The  Farmer's  Practical  Library 

EDITED  BY  ERNEST  INGERSOLL 
Cloth     i6mo     Illustrated 

From    Kitchen    to    Garret.    By    VIRGINIA 

TERHUNE  VAN  DE  WATER. 
Neighborhood  Entertainments.     By  RENEE 

B.   STERN,  of  the   Congressional  Library. 

Home      Waterworks.     By      CARLETON      J. 

LYNDE,    Professor    of    Physics    in    Mac- 

donald  College,  Quebec. 
Animal  Competitors.    By  ERNEST  INGERSOLL. 
Health    on    the    Farm.     By     DR.    H.    F. 

HARRIS,    Secretary    Georgia    State    Board 

of  Health. 
Co-operation    Among    Farmers.    By    JOHN 

LEE  COULTER. 
Roads,    Paths    and    Bridges.    By    L.    W. 

PAGE,     Chief    of    the     Office     of    Public 

Roads,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Poems  of  Country  Life.  BY  GEORGE 
S.  BRYAN. 

Electricity  for  the  Farm  and  Home.  By 
FRANK  KOESTER. 

Fish  Culture  in  Ponds  and  Other  Inland 
Waters.  By  WILLIAM  E.  MEEHAN, 
Supt.  Public  Aquarium,  Philadelphia. 

Village  Improvement.  By  PARRIS  T. 
FARWELL.  In  preparation. 

The  Farm  Mechanic.  By  L.  W.  CHASE, 
Professor  of  Farm  Mechanics  in  the 
University  of  Nebraska.  In  prepara- 
tion. 

The  Satisfactions  of  Country  Life.  By 
DR.  JAMES  W.  ROBERTSON,  Principal  of 
Macdonald  College,  Quebec.  In  prep- 
aration. 


IN  THE  GLOW  OF  AN  ELECTRIC  RADIATOR 


ELECTRICITY  FOR 
THE  FARM  AND  HOME 


BY 

FRANK  KOESTER 

Associate  Member  American  Institute  Electrical  Engineers 
Member  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education 

Member  Society  German  Engineers  (Berlin) 
Author  of  ''Hydroelectric  Developments  and  Engineering," 

"Steam  Electric  Power  Plants,"  "The  Price 
of  Inefficiency,  '  etc. 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION 
BY 

THOMAS  COMMERFORD  MARTIN 


ILLUSTRATED 


IRew 

STURGIS  &  WALTON 

COMPANY 

1913 


-f 

K-t 


Copyright,  1913 
BY  STURGIS  &  WALTON  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  June,  1913 


DEDICATED 

TO 
MY  FRIEND 

THOMAS  COMMERFORD  MARTIN 

Author  of  the  first  American  book  on  the  Electric 

Motor,  25  years  ago,  in  which  hopeful 

reference  is  made  to  the  subject 

herein  developed. 


INTBODUCTION 

BY  THE  GENERAL  EDITOR 

This  is  the  day  of  the  small  book.  There  is 
much  to  be  done.  Time  is  short.  Information 
is  earnestly  desired,  but  it  is  wanted  in  compact 
form,  confined  directly  to  the  subject  in  view, 
authenticated  by  real  knowledge,  and,  withal, 
gracefully  delivered.  It  is  to  fulfil  these  con- 
ditions that  the  present  series  has  been  pro- 
jected— to  lend  real  assistance  to  those  who  are 
looking  about  for  new  tools  and  fresh  ideas. 

It  is  addressed  especially  to  the  man  and 
woman  at  a  distance  from  the  libraries,  exhibi- 
tions, and  daily  notes  of  progress,  which  are 
the  main  advantage,  to  a  studious  mind,  of  liv- 
ing in  or  near  a  large  city.  The  editor  has  had 
in  view,  especially,  the  farmer  and  villager 
who  is  striving  to  make  the  life  of  himself  and 
his  family  broader  and  brighter,  as  well  as  to 
increase  his  bank  account;  and  it  is  therefore 
in  the  humane,  rather  than  in  a  commercial  di- 
rection, that  the  Library  has  been  planned. 

yii 

464516 


viii  INTBODUCTION 

The  average  American  little  needs  advice  on 
the  conduct  of  his  farm  or  business;  or,  if  he 
thinks  he  does,  a  large  supply  of  such  help  in 
farming  and  trading  as  books  and  periodicals 
can  give,  is  available  to  him.  But  many  a  man 
who  is  well  to  do  and  knows  how  to  continue 
to  make  money,  is  ignorant  how  to  spend  it  in 
a  way  to  bring  to  himself,  and  confer  upon  his 
wife  and  children,  those  conveniences,  comforts 
and  niceties  which  alone  make  money  worth 
acquiring  and  life  worth  living.  He  hardly 
realises  that  they  are  within  his  reach. 

For  suggestion  and  guidance  in  this  direction 
there  is  a  real  call,  to  which  this  series  is  an 
answer.  It  proposes  to  tell  its  readers  how 
they  can  make  work  easier,  health  more  secure, 
and  the  home  more  enjoyable  and  tenacious 
of  the  whole  family.  No  evil  in  American  rural 
life  is  so  great  as  the  tendency  of  the  young 
people  to  leave  the  farm  and  the  village.  The 
only  way  to  overcome  this  evil  is  to  make  rural 
life  less  hard  and  sordid ;  more  comfortable  and 
attractive.  It  is  to  the  solving  of  that  problem 
that  these  books  are  addressed.  Their  central 
idea  is  to  show  how  country  life  may  be  made 


INTRODUCTION  ix 

richer  in  interest,  broader  in  its  activities  and 
its  outlook,  and  sweeter  to  the  taste. 

To  this  end  men  and  women  who  have  given 
each  a  lifetime  of  study  and  thought  to  his  or 
her  specialty,  will  contribute  to  the  Library, 
and  it  is  safe  to  promise  that  each  volume  will 
join  with  its  eminently  practical  information  a 
still  more  valuable  stimulation  of  thought. 

EKNEST  INGEKSOLL. 


INTBODUCTION 

BY 

THOMAS  COMMEEFOED  MAETIN 

The  fact  is  universally  recognised  that  farm- 
ing and  country  life  in  general  have  been  im- 
proved in  condition  and  made  more  profitable 
in  the  degree  to  which  mechanical  energy  has 
been  substituted  in  them  for  human  and  animal 
labour.  The  public  at  large  has  also  benefitted 
from  heavier  crops,  planted,  raised,  and  gath- 
ered more  cheaply. 

This  process  is  happily  in  greater  expression 
to-day  than  ever;  and  to  the  resources  utilised 
by  the  farmer  in  releasing  himself  and  the  land 
from  mere  brute  toil  is  now  added  electricity, 
the  most  readily  adaptable  power  of  all.  The 
new  agency  has  been  rendered  chiefly  available 
in  country  life  by  the  development  of  water 
powers,  and  the  extension  of  power  circuits  over 
large  areas  and  remote  districts,  fed  from  these 
hydroelectric  central  stations.  In  some  rare 

xi 


xii  INTRODUCTION 

instances,  the  farmer  is  able  to  generate  his  own 
electricity. 

Mr.  Koester  has  been  wise  in  his  method  and 
manner  of  telling  the  story  of  this  modern 
innovation,  from  which  seem  likely  to  spring 
greater  revolutions  even  than  came  in  with  the 
reaper  and  binder  or  the  cotton  gin.  No  one 
yet  knows  exactly  how  far  the  change  may  take 
us  or  what  economic  limitations  of  electricity 
in  rural  life  are,  in  its  usefulness  for  light,  heat, 
pumping,  and  other  services.  But  the  first  step 
in  that  direction,  is  obviously  to  study  the  condi- 
tions, learn  the  facts,  and  note  actual  applica- 
tions, whether  in  America  or  in  Europe.  Mr. 
Koester  has  done  this  admirably,  so  that  his 
work  as  a  popular,  accurate  manual  on  the  sub- 
ject stands  unique.  What  thousands  of  farmers 
are  now  doing  in  harnessing  electricity  for 
their  service,  instead  of  horses  or  mules,  other 
thousands  ought  to  be  able  to  do ;  and  that  they 
will  do  it  in  the  near  future  is  more  than  hope- 
ful. It  is  inevitable,  and  Mr.  Koester  points 
the  way. 

Mr.  Koester  has  been  wise  in  adding  chapters 
that  deal  with  the  general  utilisation  of  electric- 


INTEODUCTION  xiii 

ity  in  rural  districts,  of  which  there  are  a 
great  many  where  service  can  be  taken  from  dis- 
tant city  telephone  exchanges  or  central  sta- 
tions, as  well  as  from  remote  power  plants. 
The  farmer  is  not  alone  the  beneficiary,  but 
there  is  thus  given  the  use  of  electricity  in  the 
home,  while  an  immense  stimulus  is  imparted 
of  a  profitable  nature,  tending  to  develop  a 
residential  population  not  involved  directly  in 
farming  and  helping  to  take  "back  to  the  soil/' 
those  who  should  never  have  left  it. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The  author  wishes  to  express  his  thanks  to 
the  "The  Electrical  Eeview  and  Western  Elec- 
trician/' "The  Electrical  World,"  "Electrical 
Becord,"  "Popular  Electricity  Magazine"  and 
"The  Engineering  Magazine"  for  the  use  of 
engravings  which  originally  illustrated  articles 
written  by  him  on  the  various  phases  of  agri- 
cultural electricity,  and  printed  in  those  publi- 
cations during  the  past  eight  years.  Much 
credit  is  due  them  for  their  support  and  in- 
dorsement of  the  subject  of  adapting  electric 
power  to  agriculture,  and  to  their  early  recog- 
nition of  its  great  importance  to  the  public  at 
large. 

Although  electric  farming  has  now  reached  a 
high  state  of  development,  especially  abroad, 
this  is  the  first  extended  work  on  the  subject. 
It  will  be  found  to  cover  the  field  in  a  compre- 
hensive manner,  and  to  contain  illustrations 
of  all  the  important  apparatus.  For  some  of 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

these,    previously    published    elsewhere,    my 
thanks  are  due  to  the  following  concerns: 

Siemens  Schuckert  Werke,  Berlin;  Allgeme- 
ine  Electricitaets  Gesellschaf t,  Berlin ;  Oerlikon, 
Oerlikon,  Switzerland;  Westinghouse  Electric 
and  Manufacturing  Company,  Pittsburg;  Gen- 
eral Electric  Company,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.; 
Simplex  Electric  Heating  Company,  Cambridge, 
Mass.;  C.  A.  Sterlinger  Company,  Detroit; 
Eochester  Bailway  &  Light  Company,  Little 
Falls,  N.  Y.,  and  The  Pacific  Gas  &  Electric 
Company,  San  Francisco. 

I  am  particularly  indebted  to  Mr.  Thomas 
Commerford  Martin,  Secretary  of  the  National 
Electric  Light  Association,  for  the  great  inter- 
est shown  in  the  volume  and  many  valuable 
suggestions  offered. 

F.  K. 

New  York,  April,  1913. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

INTRODUCTION  BY  THOMAS  COMMEEFORD  MARTIN  .     xi 

I    BENEFITS    OF    AGRICULTURAL    ELECTRIC- 
ITY      3 

II    CENTRAL  STATION  SERVICE  .     .     .     .     .     25 

Convenience  and  Reliability — Low  First 
Cost  and  Operating  Cost — Rural  Central 
Stations — Co-operation  between  Consumers 
and  Central  Stations. 

III  GENERATING  ELECTRIC  POWER  ....     40 

Water  Power — Steam  Power — Internal 
Combustion  Engine  Power — Wind  Power — 
Electric  Storage  Batteries — Power  Distribu- 
tion. 

IV  ELECTRIC  MOTOR  APPLICATIONS  ....     88 

Household  Uses — Portable  Motors — Belt- 
ing— Farm  and  Dairy  Machinery — Water 
Pumping. 

V    COST  OF  OPERATING   ........  105 

Power  Costs — Labour  Costs — Various  Ap- 
pliances. 

VI    ELECTRICITY    IN    THE    MANUFACTURE    OF 

FARM  BY-PRODUCTS 119 

/  Sugar  —  Starch  —  Cattle   Food  —  Potato 

/  Flour — Potato  Drying. 

'VII    ELECTRICITY    IN    THE    PRESERVATION    OF 

FARM  PRODUCTS 131 

Cold  Storage — Refrigeration — Ice  Making. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTEE  PAGE 

VIII    ELECTRIC  TRANSPORTATION  OF  FARM  PROD- 
UCTS   141 

Truckage — Field  Railways — Electric  Ve- 
hicles— Hoists. 

IX    ELECTRIC  PLOUGHING 150 

Single     Motor     Plough  —  Double     Motor     / 
Plough — Speed  and  Cost  of  Ploughing. 

X    DIVERSE  APPLICATIONS  OP  ELECTRICITY  .       165 

Domestic  Water  Supply — Cow  Milking-f 
Vacuum  Cleaning — Fans — Ozonisers — Incu- 
bation. 

XI    ELECTRIC  HEATING    193 

Cooking — Ironing — Heating. 

XII    ELECTRIC  LIGHTING 210 

Interior  and  Exterior  Lighting — Incan- 
descent and  Arc  Lamps — Low  Costs. 

XIII  THE  TELEPHONE  IN  RURAL  COMMUNITIES  225 

Great  Advantages — Telephone  Line  Con- 
struction. 

XIV  ELECTRIC  POWER  IN  IRRIGATION     .     .      .  245 

Great  Progress  in  Irrigation — Pumping 
Systems — Water  Distribution. 

XV    ELECTRIC  STIMULATION  OF  VEGETATION   .  261 

High  Voltage  Methods — System  of  Appli- 
cation— Air  Nitrate — Problem  of  Fertilisa- 
tion—Turning Water  Power  Energy  in 
Fertiliser. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

In  the  glow  of  an  electric  radiator   .      .      .     Frontispiece 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1  An  electric  substation 28 

2  Stationary  transformer .32 

3  A  portable  transformer 38 

4  A  hydroelectric  plant,  exterior 44 

5  A  hydroelectric  plant,  interior 50 

6  An  electric  generator  set 65 

7  A  power  transmission  system 81 

8  Transformer  and  field  telephone 83 

9  A  general  utility  motor 91 

10  Potato  peeling  machine 92 

11  Dishwasher  and  exhaust  fan 95 

12  An  electrically  operated  dairy .96 

13  A  motor  on  a  truck 99 

14  Hay  cutter  and  its  motor 102 

15  A  small  portable  motor 106 

16  A  thresher,  motor-driven 107 

17  Butter  churn,  motor  geared 109 

18  Laundry   interior 112 

19  Ice-cream  freezer 115 

20  Cream-separator      .       .      .     ,      .     „     *      .      .      .      .116 

21  Fruit-press 120 

22  Grist-mill 123 

23  Grain-mill .      .128 

24  Ice-making  plant 132 

25  Arrangement  of  cold-storage  room 134 

26  Diagram  of  a  refrigerating  system     .      .      .      .     „     .136 

27  Electric  refrigerator 139 

28  An    electric    vehicle '  .     .   142 

29  Hay-hoist 146 

xix 


xx  LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

30  An   electric   railway 148 

31  Motor-wagon  of  plough-system 152 

32  Anchor  wagon  of  plough-system 154 

33  Electric   plough   in   action 157 

34  Plough  and  motor-wagon ,     .      .   162 

35  Vacuum-pump 169 

36  Milking-machine 172 

37  Stock-cleaning  machine 173 

38  Sheep-shearing .     .     .   178 

39  Tree-felling  apparatus 185 

40  Electrically  heated  and  regulated  hover     ....   190 

41  Preparing  breakfast 195 

42  Electric  dining-room  set 196 

43  Electric  baking  and  cooking 200 

44  Waffle  irons 202 

45  Electric   flatiron 205 

46  Electric  range 207 

47  An  electrically  lighted  stable 211 

48  Threshing  by  electric  light 217 

49  Motor-operated  pump 247 

50  A  sprinkling  system 253 

51  Pumping  plant  for   irrigation 257 

52  Melons  grown  by  the  aid  of  electricity     ....   265 

53  Electrically-forced  flowers 272 


ELECTEICITY  FOE  THE 
FAEM  AND  HOME 


Electricity  for  the  Farm  and 
Home 


CHAPTER  I 

BENEFITS  OF  AGRICULTURAL 
ELECTRICITY 

THE  ages  of  toil  which  agriculture  has  de- 
manded of  man  and  beast,  the  bondage  of  la- 
bour and  the  stupefying  and  soul-benumbing 
work  of  the  tiller  of  the  soil,  so  long  unescap- 
able,  are  yielding  to  the  advance  of  modern 
science. 

Agriculture  is  no  longer  to  remain  a  practice 
of  yokels  but  is  to  become  an  applied  science, 
and  the  farmer  with  business  ability  no  longer 
needs  the  supply  of  brawn  and  elbow-grease 
which  was  once  his  sole  necessary  equipment. 
With  the  changes  now  taking  place,  the  man  of 
brains  and  ability  can  find  in  the  country  every 
exercise  for  his  talents  that  has  attracted  him 
in  the  past  to  the  city;  every  opportunity  for 


:  ELE1CTEICITY 

fortune  and  development;  a  healthier  and  a 
fuller  life;  and  at  the  same  time  escape  from 
the  drudgery  and  the  grinding  toil  that  have 
made  the  farm  a  place  to  be  abandoned  to  the 
less  enterprising. 

The  greatest  agent  of  agricultural  progress 
is  electricity.  It  is  the  great  emancipator  of 
the  toiler.  A  motor  of  even  diminutive  size 
does  the  work  of  a  man  at  far  less  expense, 
since  the  power  developed  by  the  human  ma- 
chine is  the  most  expensive  power  which  man- 
kind ever  utilises.  And  in  supplanting  labour 
electricity  has  a  most  profound  effect  upon 
agriculture,  since  agriculture  demands  great  la- 
bour but  very  .little  skill.  Electricity  minimises 
the  labour,  and  the  farm  hand,  with  the  neces- 
sity of  exercising  but  little  skill,  can  direct  the 
labours  of  large  electrical  units  and  accomplish 
amounts  of  work  that  would  be  utterly  imprac- 
ticable under  ordinary  conditions. 

The  importance  of  electrifying  farms  is  not 
only  of  the  first  consequence  to  the  farmer,  but 
also  to  the  city  dweller,  for  the  emancipation  of 
labour  means  vastly  increased  and  cheapened 
production  of  the  necessities  of  life,  and  a  con- 


AGBICULTUBAL  ELECTKICITY        5 

sequent  increase  in  the  purchasing  power  of  the 
labour  of  the  dweller  in  the  city. 

In  utilising  electricity  on  the  farm,  however, 
it  is  necessary,  since  the  farmer  uses  a  great 
many  and  a  great  variety  of  implements  and 
mechanical  devices,  that  he  should  co-operate 
with  the  engineer,  in  order  to  take  advantage 
of  the  skill  and  experience  of  the  latter  to  re- 
place the  much  sought-for  and  much  needed 
manual  labour,  to  cut  down  the  number  of 
draught  animals,  to  make  the  farm  produce 
more,  and  to  make  rural  life  more  congenial 
and  agreeable. 

The  use  of  electricity  on  our  farms  is  sure 
to  be  greatly  increased  with  the  progress  of 
that  intensive  cultivation  which  is  becoming  an 
acute  national  need,  and  the  rural  industries  in 
general  must  look  to  the  engineering  profession 
for  the  best  utilisation  of  our  natural  resources 
through  the  medium  of  electric  energy.  The 
present  decade  will  be  as  notable  for  American 
farmers  as  was  the  past  decade  for  the  German 
farmers  by  its  scientific  agricultural  develop- 
ment with  the  aid  of  electricity. 

As  a  class,  the  farmer  is  a  large  user  of 


6  ELECTEICITY 

power,  but  the  sources  from  which  he  draws 
it  are  at  present  inefficient  and  uneconomical, 
compared  with  industrial  standards  in  other 
lines.  Of  the  33,000,000  persons  engaged  in 
gainful  occupations  in  the  United  States,  not 
less  than  10,000,000  devote  their  energies 
to  agriculture.  About  90  per  cent,  of  the 
horses  and  mules  in  this  country  are  also  at 
work  on  the  farms.  The  substitution  of  electric 
power  for  even  a  small  proportion  of  the  work 
of  farm  animals  means  a  great  national  econ- 
omy. 

There  is  no  form  of  energy  which  can  sup- 
plant manual  and  animal  labour,  on  the  farm 
or  country  estate,  as  conveniently  and  cheaply 
as  electricity;  and  it  is  far  superior  to  steam 
or  any  internal-combustion  engine.  In  fact 
there  is  no  other  agent  which  can  supply  all 
three  necessities — light,  heat  and  power — from 
the  same  source.  Due  to  this  fact,  working 
hours  on  the  farm  and  rural  industries  can  be 
regulated,  as  are  those  in  manufacturing  and 
commercial  industries;  and  life  in  rural  com- 
munities can  be  made  as  attractive,  if  not  more 
so,  than  that  of  the  cities,  where  the  struggle 


AGEICULTUEAL  ELECTEICITY       7 

for  existence  is  incessant,  and  the  living  accom- 
modations, or  what  corresponds  to  home  life, 
fall  far  short  of  the  pleasant  and  healthful 
surroundings  of  the  country  residence. 

The  giant  industries  of  the  country  are  of 
recent  origin  and  started  in  a  humble  way,  but 
they  now  surpass  any  branch  of  agrarian  pur- 
suits. This  is  a  condition  readily  accounted  for, 
since  the  services  of  the  trained  engineer  were 
used  to  advantage  in  building  up  the  great  man- 
ufacturing industries,  while  farming,  though  the 
oldest  of  industries,  has  been  neglected  even 
to  the  point  of  being  abandoned  in  many  places. 

Up  to  the  present  time,  especially  in  America, 
the  aid  of  the  technical  man  is  seldom  sought 
in  solving  the  problems  which  arise  in  rural 
industries.  Probably  there  is  no  better  or  more 
authoritative  statement  of  the  value  of  techni- 
cally trained  men  as  an  aid  in  modern  farming, 
than  that  made  by  Col.  Theodore  Eoosevelt  on 
August  23,  1910,  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y. : 

"One  reason  why  the  great  business  men  of  to-day — the  great 
industrial  leaders — have  gone  ahead  while  the  farmer  has 
tended  to  lag  behind,  is  that  they  are  far  more  willing,  and 
indeed  eager,  to  profit  by  expert  and  technical  knowledge, 
that  can  only  come  as  a  result  of  the  highest  education.  From 
railways  to  factories  no  great  industrial  concern  can  nowa- 


8  ELECTEICITY 

days  be  carried  on,  save  by  the  aid  of  a  swarm  of  men  who 
have  received  a  high  technical  education  in  chemistry,  in  en- 
gineering, in  electricity,  in  one  or  more  of  scores  of  special 
subjects.  The  big  business  man,  the  big  railway  man,  does 
not  ask  college-trained  experts  to  tell  him  how  to  run  his 
business,  but  he  does  ask  numbers  of  them  to  give  him  expert 
advice  and  aid  on  some  one  point  indispensable  to  his  busi- 
ness. He  finds  this  man  usually  in  some  graduate  of  a  tech- 
nical school  or  college  in  which  he  has  been  trained  for  his 
life-work. 

"In  just  the  same  way  the  farmers  should  benefit  by  the 
advice  of  the  technical  men  who  have  been  trained  in  phases 
of  the  very  work  the  farmer  does.  I  am  not  now  speaking 
of  the  man  who  has  had  an  ordinary  general  training,  whether 
in  school  or  college.  While  there  should  undoubtedly  be  such 
a  training  as  a  foundation  (the  extent  differing  according  to 
the  kind  of  work  each  boy  intends  to  do  as  a  man),  it  is 
nevertheless  true  that  our  educational  system  should  more 
and  more  be  turned  in  the  direction  of  educating  men  toward, 
and  not  away,  from  the  farm  and  the  shop. 

"During  the  last  half  century  we  have  begun  to  develop 
a  system  of  agricultural  education,  at  once  practical  and  sci- 
entific, and  we  must  go  on  developing  it.  But,  after  develop- 
ing it,  it  must  be  used.  The  rich  man  who  spends  a  fortune 
upon  a  fancy  farm,  with  entire  indifference  to  cost,  does  not 
do  much  good  to  farming,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  just  as 
little  is  done  by  the  working  farmer  who  stolidly  refuses  to 
profit  by  the  knowledge  of  the  day;  who  treats  any  effort  at 
improvement  as  absurd  on  its  face,  and  refuses  to  countenance 
what  he  regards  as  newfangled  ideas  and  contrivances,  and 
jeers  at  all  book  farming." 

In  Europe,  particularly  in  German-speaking 
countries,  due  to  the  harmonious  co-operation  of 
farmer  and  engineer,  great  progress  has  been 
made  in  the  use  of  electricity  as  a  servant  on 


AGBICULTUBAL  ELECTRICITY       9 

the  farm,  about  the  country  residence,  and  in 
rural  industries  in  general. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  clearer  idea  of  the  ad- 
vantage of  electricity  over  any  other  agent,  and 
to  show  that  electricity  is  the  best  medium  for 
the  farmer,  the  following  facts  are  cited. 
There  are  thousands  of  steam  and  internal- 
combustion  engines  in  use  on  our  farms  to-day, 
principally  for  replacing  draught  animals,  and, 
of  course,  a  proportionate  number  of  farm 
hands ;  and  they  are  used  with  machinery,  such 
as  ploughs  and  threshers  and  especially  pumps. 
For  operating  small  machinery  such  as  is  re- 
quired in  dairies,  as  cow-milkers,  cream-sepa- 
rators, butter-kneaders,  etc,  an  internal-combus- 
tion engine  could  not  be  as  advantageously  used 
as  an  electric  motor,  however,  for  the  reason 
that  the  smallest  commercial  internal-combus- 
tion engine  is  about  two  horsepower,  while  the 
electric  motor  may  be  chosen  in  capacities  of 
one-tenth  of  a  horsepower  and  upwards  to  suit 
the  machine  to  be  operated.  Further,  no  fuel 
is  necessary,  the  only  requirement  being  to  turn 
on  a  switch  to  start  the  motor. 

In  fact  practice  has  proven  that  farm  ma- 


10  ELECTEICITY 

chinery  can  advantageously  be  operated  by 
electric  motors.  The  machines  usually  operated 
on  the  farm  are,  ploughs,  rollers,  reapers, 
threshers,  corn-grinders,  corn-shellers,  corn- 
shredders,  fodder-cutters,  wood-saws,  pumps, 
horse  and  sheep  clippers,  and  apparatus  for  un- 
loading and  hoisting  hay,  corn-stalks  and  simi- 
lar products.  Another  great  saving  of  labour  in 
the  use  of  electricity  is  in  serving  washing  ma- 
chinery, carpet-cleaners,  sewing  machines,  fans, 
and  appliances  for  cooking  and  for  heating 
laundry  irons,  none  of  which  could  well  be 
served  by  any  agent  other  than  electricity, 
In  addition  to  its  use  for  power,  electric 
energy,  which  has  to  be  supplied  to  the  motors 
either  from  an  outside  source  or  from  its  own 
central  plant,  may  be  utilised  for  light  and 
heat. 

Where  connection  cannot  be  made  with  a  local 
electric  distributing  company,  the  farmer  should 
have  his  own  electric  generating  station,  which 
may  be  operated  by  water,  steam,  gas,  gasoline, 

011  or  windmill  power.    Where  a  stream  runs 
through  a  farm  or  is  in  the  neighbourhood, 
cheap  power,  both  as  regards  the  first  cost  and 


AGEICULTUEAL  ELECTEICITY     11 

operating  expenses,  may  be  derived  from  this 
natural  source. 

In  generating  current  by  steam  power,  the 
cost  per  kilowatt-hour  is  comparatively  high. 
Somewhat  better  results  may  be  obtained  with  a 
gas-producer  plant,  which,  instead  of  burning 
the  coal  in  a  steam  boiler,  and  using  the  steam 
for  driving  the  engine,  slowly  burns  the  coal  in 
a  producer,  generating  gas  for  operating  the  gas 
engine. 

The  gasoline,  oil,  and  alcohol  engines  work 
on  the  same  principle  as  the  gas  engine,  as  all 
are  of  the  internal-combustion  type.  Great 
strides  have  been  made  in  the  last  decade  in 
this  type  of  engine,  so  that  to-day  it  operates 
with  reliability  and  economy  and  requires  but 
little  attention. 

Another  source  of  energy  for  generation  of 
electric  current  for  farm  and  country  residences, 
is  the  windmill.  The  early  Dutch  windmills 
were  built  with  sweeps  from  50  to  100  feet 
in  diameter;  but  our  modern  American  wind- 
mills have  a  sweep  of  only  12  to  18  feet,  and 
generate  more  power  than  the  early  Dutch 
mills,  with  less  attention. 


12  ELECTRICITY 

All  the  above  prime  movers  can  be  connected 
to  electric  generators  by  belt,  gearing  or  coup- 
lings, and  their  control  may  be  accomplished 
automatically,  so  that  little  attention  is  re- 
quired. 

The  greatest  amount  of  energy  being  used  in 
the  daytime,  and  the  load  for  illumination  being 
small  and  wanted  principally  in  the  evening, 
it  is  therefore  not  profitable  to  run  the  prime 
movers  except  during  the  day.  The  use  of  a 
storage  battery  is  therefore  of  great  service  in 
supplying  energy  at  periods  of  small  demand, 
when  the  generators  are  shut  down.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  storage  battery,  and  with  the  new 
development  of  the  low-voltage  Tungsten  lamps, 
the  cost  and  size,  as  well  as  the  maintenance- 
expense,  may  be  considerably  reduced  by  proper 
engineering. 

The  main  feature  in  which  the  great  advan- 
tage of  a  farm  operated  by  electricity  lies  is 
that  the  farmer  himself  has  at  all  times  under 
his  direct  control  the  entire  supply  of  electric 
energy  being  used,  whether  obtained  from  some 
public-service  corporation  or  supplied  by  his 
private  plant. 


AGRICULTUKAL  ELECTEICITY     13 

A  plan  much  adopted  abroad,  is  to  install 
a  rural  central  station  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
plying a  number  of  farms,  local  industries  and 
country  estates,  with  electric  current.  By 
establishing  a  rural  central  station,  actuated 
by  steam,  water,  gasoline,  oil  or  gas,  a  great 
saving  in  the  production  of  electric  energy  may 
be  secured.  In  Germany  to-day  as  many  as  100 
to  150  consumers  are  supplied  with  electric  en- 
ergy from  a  single  one  of  the  many  stations. 

Many  of  the  German  farmers  carry  on  in- 
dustries in  connection  with  their  farms,  whereby 
they  utilise  their  by-products;  and  this  is  the 
secret  of  the  success  of  many  well-to-do  men. 
For  instance,  one  rural  central  station  system 
serves  four  grist  mills  with  five  motors,  hav- 
ing a  total  capacity  of  105  horsepower;  one 
tile  works  with  a  40-horsepower  motor;  one 
saw-mill  with  a  20-horsepower  motor;  four 
wheelwrights  with  motors  consuming  16  horse- 
power; and  many  other  industries  such  as  cab- 
inet-making, distilling,  blacksmithing,  bottling 
works,  etc.,  which  use  motors  of  various  ca- 
pacities. There  are  also  served  by  the  system 
some  20  consumers  for  light  only,  having  a 


14  ELECTRICITY 

total  of  343  incandescent  lamps  and  five  arc 
lamps ;  one  railway  and  freight  station  with  120 
incandescent  lamps;  one  club  house  with  72 
lamps  and  six  arc  lights ;  and  in  addition  to  this 
two  towns  are  supplied,  having  a  total  of  1,692 
lamps. 

From  the  above  facts  and  figures,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  electricity  can  give  a  new  stimulus 
to  agriculture  and  farming,  and  at  the  same 
time  open  a  new  way  by  which  the  rural  popu- 
lation can  be  induced  to  remain  on  the  farm 
instead  of  flocking  to  the  cities. 

A  very  important  feature  is,  that  a  few  mo- 
tors properly  selected  may  be  used  to  operate 
all  of  the  machines  on  the  farm,  instead  of  hav- 
ing a  steam  or  gasoline  prime  mover  attached 
to  each  machine.  In  this  feature  lies  a  great 
advantage  of  electrically  operated  farm  ma- 
chinery. For  instance,  a  motor  may  be  placed 
on  a  low  wheeled  truck,  and  connected  by  means 
of  a  belt  to  a  threshing  machine,  taking  its 
electric  supply  from  the  mains  by  a  flexible 
cable  plugged  into  a  suitable  outlet.  On  the 
throwing  of  a  switch,  the  motor  starts  and  oper- 
ates continuously  without  attention.  After  the 


AGBICULTUBAL  ELECTEICITY     15 

threshing  is  completed,  the  motor  may  then  be 
connected  to  the  baling  machine,  which  packs 
the  straw  into  bales,  while,  if  necessary,  the 
motor  may  be  used  in  loading  the  bales  upon 
wagons  by  operating  a  hoist.  At  other  times, 
the  same  motor  may  drive  a  water-pump,  wood- 
saw,  etc. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  the  electric  motor  can 
be  operated  without  the  attention  necessary  for 
steam  or  gasoline  prime  movers,  which  have  to 
be  supplied  with  water  and  fuel.  With  all 
other  prime  movers,  when  placed  in  the  barn 
or  haymow,  or  beside  some  stack  in  a  field, 
the  risk  from  fire  is  a  thousandfold  greater  than 
with  an  electric  motor;  in  fact,  an  enclosed  elec- 
tric motor  may  be  placed  anywhere  on  the  farm 
without  such  a  risk,  or  the  fear  of  an  explosion. 

The  motors  used  on  dairy  appliances,  and  for 
the  various  household  operations,  are  of  such 
small  size  and  weight  that  they  may  readily  be 
carried  around  by  one  or  two  persons  and  ap- 
plied to  one  machine  or  another  wherever 
needed.  Thus  many  farms  can  get  along  with 
one  large  and  one  small  motor.  As  the  various 
farm  machines  operate  at  different  speeds,  the 


16  ELECTEICITY 

motors  are  supplied  with  suitable  regulating  de- 
vices, so  that  the  desired  speeds  may  be  ob- 
tained. 

The  great  advantage  of  cold  storage  is  not 
properly  recognised  to-day  by  farmers.  By 
means  of  electrically  operated  cold-storage  sys- 
tems, butter,  milk,  eggs  and  other  perishable 
goods  may  be  saved  from  spoiling.  In  many 
cases,  especially  with  fruit,  a  farmer  is  forced 
to  let  his  product  lie  on  the  ground  and  rot, 
because  the  price  offered  does  not  pay  the  ex- 
pense of  picking,  packing,  and  shipping  to  the 
commission  merchant.  A  private  cold-storage 
system  would  enable  him  to  pick  his  fruit  in 
season,  when  the  market  price  was  low,  and 
store  it  until  he  received  his  own  price. 

For  such  purposes  electric  ice-making  ma- 
chines for  refrigerating  plants  are  preferable. 
The  motor  applied  to  this  equipment  can  be 
arranged  to  start  and  stop  automatically,  and 
will  keep  the  temperature  in  the  cold-storage 
room  within  a  few  degrees  of  that  desired. 

For  irrigation  purposes,  electric  pumps  are 
of  great  service,  whether  on  a  large  or  a  small 
scale.  As  these  pumps  work  only  in  certain 


AGRICULTURAL  ELECTRICITY      17 

seasons  of  the  year,  and  at  certain  hours  of  the 
day,  public-service  corporations  have  recognised 
of  late  that  they  are  a  means  of  keeping  up  a 
uniform  power-demand  on  the  plant,  and  con- 
sequently energy  for  this  purpose  is  offered  at 
exceptionally  low  rates.  The  motor-driven 
pumps  may  be  stationary  or  portable. 

Large  sums  are  yearly  spent  for  irrigation 
purposes,  waterways  regulation  and  drainage 
systems,  and,  seemingly,  in  almost  all  cases, 
without  due  consideration  of  the  possibilities 
of  utilising  the  energy  of  the  water  for  gener- 
ating an  -electric  current  which  might  advan- 
tageously be  used  for  farming  or  rural 
industries.  Good  examples  on  a  large  scale  of 
such  combination  systems  are  found  in  Switzer- 
land and  Germany,  where  advantage  is  taken 
of  all  kinds  of  natural  resources,  and  the  proper 
husbanding  of  the  same  for  the  benefit  of  the 
public  in  general. 

Electric  ploughing  has  been  carried  on  in 
Germany  for  some  fifteen  years,  and  great 
strides  have  been  made,  particularly  in  the  last 
five  years.  Of  the  several  systems  employed, 
the  one-  and  two-motor  systems  are  most  ex- 


18  ELECTEICITY 

tensively  used.  In  both  these  systems  the 
plough  is  pulled  across  the  field  by  a  cable 
wound  on  a  drum. 

In  the  single-motor  system,  on  one  side  of 
the  field  the  motor  is  mounted  on  a  self-pro- 
pelled wagon,  while  on  the  other  side  is  an 
anchor-wagon,  which  automatically  travels 
forward,  parallel  with  the  motor-wagon,  with 
each  new  furrow.  The  two-motor  system  has 
two  motors,  one  on  each  of  two  self-propelled 
wagons,  one  of  these  replacing  the  anchor- 
wagon.  The  one  motor  system  is  lower  in 
first  cost,  but  the  other  can  be  more  readily 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  any  form  of  field. 

Electric  ploughing  has  great  advantages  over 
that  by  gasoline  or  steam  engines.  With  a 
steam  plough,  for  instance,  a  great  amount  of 
coal  and  water  must  be  taken  to  the  field  by 
teams  and  drivers  which  must  be  paid  for. 
Electric  ploughing  can  be  carried  on  in  prac- 
tically every  kind  of  weather,  even  in  the  winter, 
when  steam-operated  ploughs  would  freeze; 
and  the  electric  plough  can  be  used  in  soft  or 
loamy  soil  where  horses  cannot  work,  and  on 
hilly  ground. 


AGEICULTUEAL  ELECTEICITY      19 

As  far  as  the  cost  of  electric  ploughing  is 
concerned,  experience  shows  that  it  can  be  done 
cheaper  per  acre  than  by  horses  or  steam.  The 
field  of  electric  ploughing  of  to-day  is  found 
principally  in  Germany.  It  is  an  established 
fact  that  American  agricultural  machinery  in 
its  wide  practical  application,  is,  in  most  re- 
spects, far  superior  to  that  of  any  foreign 
make;  and  should  the  domestic  manufacturers 
devote  themselves  with  the  same  skill  to  con- 
triving apparatus  for  electric  ploughing,  it 
will  be  only  a  short  time  until  our  farmers 
recognise  the  advantages  of  the  system.  Elec- 
tric ploughing  is  not  confined  to  farms  of  large 
acreage,  but  may  be  carried  on  to  good  advan- 
tage on  farms  of  small  size. 

The  need  of  utilising  farm-refuse  for  by- 
products is  one  that  deserves  the  most  thorough 
consideration.  Our  modern  industries  seek  to 
make  all  possible  utilisation  of  by-products,  and 
in  thousands  of  cases  it  has  turned  out  that  the 
by-product  has  proved  more  profitable  than  the 
original  substance  sought.  Many  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  farm  which  are  now  allowed  to  go 
to  waste,  could  be  turned  to  good  account  by 


20  ELECTRICITY 

the  use  of  electrically  operated  apparatus 
especially  designed  to  turn  into  marketable 
goods  such  by-products  as  alcohol,  sugar, 
starch,  cider,  etc.  Further,  the  electric  motor 
may  be  used  in  the  blacksmith  or  carpenter 
shop,  grist  mill,  wheelwright  shop,  in  a  briquet- 
ting  and  tile  plant,  etc.,  all  furthering  the  ad- 
vance of  rural  industry. 

As  potatoes  lose  value  to  a  considerable 
amount  in  storage,  thrifty  German  farmers  in 
the  last  few  years  have  installed  some  3,000 
drying  systems,  where  the  potatoes  are  washed, 
peeled  and  cut  into  dice,  then  dried  and  stored 
for  future  use,  without  the  loss  due  to  ordinary 
storage.  By  this  process  Germany  saves  $25,- 
000,000  per  year.  To  effect  a  further  economy, 
the  German  farmers  are  installing,  at  present, 
drying  systems  for  beet  and  potato  leaves,  which 
contain  a  great  amount  of  nutriment  for  cattle. 
Through  these  installations  it  is  calculated  that 
a  saving  of  $12,000,000  per  year  can  be  effected, 
while  in  previous  years  Germany  was  forced  to 
buy  $8,000,000  worth  of  cattle  food  from  other 
countries. 

An  efficient  lighting  system  is  well  recognised 


AGEICULTUEAL  ELECTEICITY     21 

as  being  of  as  much  importance  in  the  country 
as  in  the  city.  Good  lighting  assists  in  fixing 
definite  hours  of  labour,  which  is  necessary  to 
satisfy  the  demands  of  farm  hands,  and  is  of 
value  to  every  one  in  the  country  as  well  as  in 
the  town.  Better  light  secures  greater  effi- 
ciency and  cleanliness;  while  fire  risks  are 
diminished  and  insurance  rates  are  reduced. 
Electric  lamps  require  no  matches,  burn  without 
flame,  consume  no  oxygen,  and  therefore  do  not 
vitiate  the  air  of  a  room,  and  are  unaffected  by 
any  change  in  weather  conditions.  Electric 
lighting  is  particularly  of  great  service  for  sta- 
bles and  barns,  where  the  use  of  lanterns  has 
caused  numerous  fires  and  destroyed  millions 
of  dollars'  worth  of  property.  The  country 
yard  and  field  may  be  lighted,  such  lighting  con- 
trolled from  the  residence.  This  feature  is 
especially  convenient  when,  in  the  autumn, 
harvesting  is  necessarily  carried  on  after  dusk 
in  order  to  take  advantage  of  weather  condi- 
tions. In  such  cases,  the  field  under  harvest 
can  be  illuminated  to  advantage  and  work  con- 
tinued long  after  nigth-f all. 
Electricity  is  a  ready  servant  for  cooking  or 


22  ELECTRICITY 

heating.  No  heat  is  wasted,  as  in  a  coal  or 
wood  stove,  all  being  concentrated  in  the  one 
piece  of  apparatus  being  used.  The  cost  of 
operating  a  small  electric  range  is  in  many 
cases  cheaper  than  burning  wood  or  coal.  Elec- 
tric current  may  often  be  bought  for  5  cents 
per  kilowatt-hour,  and  as  the  average  price  of 
gas  throughout  the  country  is  $1.20  per  thou- 
sand cubic  feet,  the  cost  of  electric  cooking  is 
the  same  as  that  done  by  a  gas  range,  provided 
no  heat  is  wasted  by  the  gas  range,  which,  how- 
ever, is  practically  unavoidable.  Electric  cook- 
ing also  means  perfect  cleanliness,  for  there  is 
no  soot  or  smoke,  and  as  for  convenience,  all 
that  is  necessary  is  to  turn  a  switch.  In  country 
residences,  where  during  certain  hours  of  the 
day  only  a  little  cooking  is  carried  on,  such  as 
making  coffee,  boiling  eggs,  preparing  toast  or 
supplying  heat  to  chafing  dishes,  all  this  is  done 
electrically  in  a  few  minutes,  even  on  the  dining 
table  itself. 

The  heating  of  flatirons  by  means  of  elec- 
tricity has  proven  one  of  the  greatest  of  boons 
to  the  household.  The  electric  flatiron  is  so 
constructed  that  the  current  is  supplied  to  the 


AGEICULTUEAL  ELECTRICITY      23 

iron  during  use,  and  it  therefore  maintains  its 
working  temperature,  does  not  overheat,  caus- 
ing accidental  scorching  of  the  work,  and  is  kept 
.ready  at  a  minimum  cost.  As  no  stove  is  neces- 
sary, there  is  no  constant  change  of  irons ;  and 
no  intense  heat  is  radiated  into  the  room  to  make 
the  operation  tiresome,  as  is  so  particularly  the 
case  in  the  summertime. 

Other  electrically  operated  heating  appliances 
for  household  convenience  are  facial  and  scalp 
massage  apparatus,  foot-warmers,  heating-pads 
and  bed-warmers,  radiators,  etc.,  many  of  which 
are  conveniently  applied  to  hospitals  and  sick- 
rooms. Among  appliances  especially  made  for 
hospital  use,  are  sterilisers,  x-ray  apparatus, 
cauteries,  electric  blankets,  ozonisers,  etc. 

These  by  no  means  comprise  the  entire  list 
of  necessary  and  convenient  household  appli- 
ances which  can  be  found  to-day.  New  devices 
are  appearing  constantly,  so  that  at  the  present 
time  there  is  hardly  a  household  or  farm  where 
electric  energy,  through  the  skill  of  the  engineer, 
could  not  be  made  to  supplant  many  of  the  la- 
borious operations. 

At  the  present  time,  fully  ninety  per  cent,  of 


24  ELECTEICITY 

all  skilled  labour  comes  under  the  supervision  of 
the  engineer,  who  has  employed  it  and  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  natural  resources,  to  build  up  the 
gigantic  industries  which  we  have  to-day.  Our 
farmers  should,  in  a  similar  way,  take  advan- 
tage of  the  electrical  engineer's  experience  in 
the  practice  of  developing  and  husbanding  their 
natural  resources  through  the  medium  of  elec- 
tric energy,  and  modernise  and  render  more 
productive  our  agrarian  industries,  upon  which 
not  only  our  financial  standing  is  dependent, 
but  the  general  welfare  of  the  country  as  a 
whole. 


CHAPTER  II 
CENTEAL  STATION  SEEVICE 

Availability  of  Electricity. — Many  farms 
"both  in  the  United  States  and  abroad  are 
served  by  lines  from  city  or  other  electric  sta- 
tions, and  in  many  of  the  states  throughout  this 
country  the  long-distance  transmission  lines  of 
numerous  hydro-electric  plants  pass  through 
farming  communities  more  or  less  populated. 
These  systems  are  usually  of  high  tension, 
varying  from  13,000  to  60,000,  or  as  high  as 
150,000  volts.  These  high  voltages  are  not 
used  directly  in  motors,  but  must  be  reduced 
by  transformers  to  a  suitable  value,  depending 
on  the  nature  of  the  purpose  to  which  the  motor 
is  to  be  applied.  Likewise  for  use  on  farms 
and  in  country  residences,  a  transformer  must 
be  had  to  furnish  a  supply  of  current  at  a  low 
voltage  value  for  local  distribution. 

Where  large  tracts  are  to  be  covered  on  a 

25 


26  ELECTRICITY 

single  farm,  practice  has  proven  that  a  voltage 
of  about  13,000  is  most  suitable;  intermediate 
stationary  or  portable  transformers  being  used 
to  step  the  voltage  down  to  that  desired  on  the 
motors  of  the  ploughs,  threshing  machines,  etc. 

Charges. — Electric  energy  for  a  central-sta- 
tion service  is  usually  sold  on  a  sliding-scale 
principle,  that  is,  the  larger  the  consumption 
the  lower  the  price  per  kilowatt-hour ;  again,  the 
larger  the  consumption  at  a  certain  hour  of 
the  day,  when  the  load  on  the  central  station  is 
low,  the  cheaper  is  the  current  obtainable. 

From  the  above,  it  might  seem  to  some  that 
this  is  an  unjust  method  of  making  charges  for 
power,  because  the  smallest  consumer  bears  the 
larger  portion  of  the  rates  scheduled.  But  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  material  bought  in 
bulk  or  large  quantities  is  always  obtained  at  a 
low  cost,  consequently  the  larger  a  consumer's 
load,  the  smaller  the  rate  charged  per  horse- 
power per  hour. 

The  average  rate  charged  for  electric  energy 
varies  from  5  to  15  cents  per  kilowatt-hour  (1 
kilowatt=1.34  horsepower).  The  kilowatt  is 
the  standard  for  measurement  of  electric  en- 


CENTKAL  STATION  SERVICE       27 

ergy.  The  amount  of  current  consumed  is 
registered  by  metres,  supplied  by  power  com- 
panies. As  the  rates  charged  for  light  and 
power  are  different,  two  metres  are  installed; 
one  registers  the  energy  consumed  for  lighting 
and  the  other  for  power.  A  third  metre  is 
sometimes  installed,  called  a  maximum-demand 
metre,  which  registers  apart  from  the  usual 
load  any  excessive  current  which  may  be 
drawn.  An  additional  low  rate  of  charge  is 
made  whenever  a  maximum-demand  metre  is 
installed,  the  rate  being  based  on  the  reading 
of  that  metre  alone. 

Rural  Central  Station. — A  practice  much 
adopted  abroad,  particularly  in  Germany, 
where  the  government  encourages  electrically 
operated  farms,  is  to  install  rural  central  sta- 
tions for  the  purpose  of  supplying  a  number  of 
farms,  rural  industries,  country  residences  and 
estates  with  electric  current.  By  establishing 
such  a  station,  with  either  steam,  water,  oil 
or  gas  power,  a  great  saving  in  the  production 
of  electric  energy  may  be  readily  secured.  To- 
day in  Germany  often  as  high  as  100  to  150  con- 
sumers are  supplied  with  electric  energy  from 


28 


ELECTEICITY 


a  single  rural  central  station  such  as  have  been 
installed  in  great  numbers  within  the  last  fif- 
teen years. 
In  northern  Italy  and  throughout   Switzer- 


Pig.    1.     Interior    of   the    electric    sub-station    at    a    New   York    farm, 
showing  motor-generator   sets   and  switchboard. 

land  also,  there  is  considerable  use  of  the  elec- 
tric energy  in  agriculture  and  by  small  rural 
.communities.  A  network  of  distributing  lines 
has  been  formed,  drawing  energy  from  numer- 
ous and  scattered  sources  of  hydroelectric 
power  which  are,  however,  interconnected.  The 


CENTRAL  STATION  SERVICE       29 

Swiss  and  Italian  land  proprietors,  and  small 
farmers  throughout  western  Europe,  have  taken 
in  large  numbers  to  the  use  of  electric  light  and 
electric  power. 

An  example  of  the  extent  to  which  a  single 
rural  central  station  may  supply  a  farming 
community  with  electric  energy  is  seen  at  Bess- 
witz,  Germany.  The  distributing  system  for  the 
electricity  is  145  miles  long,  the  station  being 
as  near  as  possible  at  the  centre  of  the  network 
and  the  point  most  distant  from  it  is  26  miles. 
The  territory  served  with  current  is  equivalent 
to  102,000  acres,  of  which  40,000  acres  are  culti- 
vated with  the  plough.  To  the  transmission  sys- 
tem are  connected  180  electric  motors  and  about 
5,000  electric  lamps,  with  a  total  consumption 
of  1300  kilowatts  or  1780  horsepower. 

Another  interesting  instance  is  the  distribu- 
tion system  of  Lottin,  Germany.  Here  a  water- 
power  of  300  horsepower  is  utilised,  but  during 
certain  seasons  of  the  year  when  the  water  is 
low,  a  steam  generating  set  of  180  horsepower 
is  put  into  service  to  keep  up  the  supply.  It  is 
obvious  that  this  aid  can  be  pressed  into  serv- 
ice at  any  time  should  the  demand  exceed  the 


30  ELECTRICITY 

capacity  of  the  hydro-electric  station.  The  dis- 
tribution system  is  82  miles  long.  The  electric 
energy  is  used  on  61  farms,  including  rural  in- 
dustries, and  5  villages,  a  total  of  24,700  acres. 
Altogether  102  consumers  are  served,  having 
some  1501  motors  with  a  total  of  1500  horse- 
power, while  4850  incandescent  lamps  and  20 
arc  lamps  comprise  the  lighting  part  of  the 
load.  During  the  year  1908,  there  were  con- 
sumed 440,000  kilowatt-hours.  There  are  50 
farms,  with  a  varying  acreage  of  from  60  to 
1800  acres  per  farm,  under  cultivation  by  the 
plough,  with  a  total  of  275  horsepower  in  motors, 
1200  incandescent  lamps  and  20  arc  lamps.  Of 
these  farms  twelve  contain  from  300  to  600 
acres  each  and  have  12  motors  with  a  total  ca- 
pacity of  122  horsepower. 

Central  Station  Service. — The  purpose  of 
central  station  companies  is  to  deliver  a  pro- 
duct ready  for  use  to  a  number  of  different 
users  at  a  lower  cost  and  with  greater  conven- 
ience and  reliability  than  they  could  otherwise 
obtain  it.  That  product  is  electricity,  and  it  is 
to  the  interest  of  both  the  companies  and  the 
consumers  to  use  as  much  electricity  as  possi- 


CENTRAL  STATION  SERVICE       31 

ble,  for  wherever  it  can  be"  applied  it  effects 
a  saving,  and  the  more  of  it  used  the  cheaper 
will  be  its  proportionate  cost  and  the  greater 
the  satisfaction  to  all  concerned. 

One  of  the  means  whereby  the  farmer  can  get 
his  electricity  at  a  still  lower  rate,  is  to  make 
his  consumption  as  uniform  as  possible  during 
the  whole  twenty-four  hours.  The  cost  of  elec- 
tricity is  based  on  the  cost  of  fuel  or  water- 
power,  attendance,  and  the  amount  of  money 
invested  in  the  equipment,  including  generators 
and  transmission  system.  It  will  be  seen  that 
if  all  the  farmers  on  a  line  demand  electricity 
during  a  few  hours  only  of  each  day,  larger 
and  more  expensive  machinery  must  be  installed 
to  generate  it  than  would  be  necessary  if  the  de- 
mand for  the  same  amount  of  electricity  is 
spread  over  a  longer  part  of  the  day. 

The  farmer  thus  by  using  power  for  feed- 
chopping,  meat-grinding,  dairy  purposes,  wood- 
chopping,  cooking,  washing  and  general  pur- 
poses during  certain  hours  of  the  day,  light  for 
morning  and  evening,  and  in  pumping  water 
for  the  household  and  for  irrigation  at  night, 
can,  under  the  direction  of  the  electric  company, 


32 


ELECTRICITY 


so  consume  his  electricity  that  it  may  be  gen- 
erated at  the  lowest  possible  cost. 


Fig.   2.      Electric  transformers  in   the  farmyard. 

Reducing  First  Cost  of  Electric  Farming. — 
It  is  the  custom  of  the  central-station  compan- 
ies to  deliver  the  electricity  to  the  user's  prem- 
ises, where  usually  the  user  installs  his  own  dis- 


CENTEAL  STATION  SEEVICE       33 

tributing  system  through  his  house,  barns,  etc., 
for  the  majority  of  farmers  can  afford  to  buy 
their  own  machinery,  especially  of  the  smaller 
sizes;  but  in  the  case  of  large  installations  a 
number  of  methods  may  be  employed  to  obtain 
the  benefits  of  such  machinery  without  buying 
it  outright,  principally  by  means  of  co-operation 
with  central-station  concerns.  Many  such  com- 
panies are  only  too  willing  to  furnish  electric 
motors  and  wire  the  farm  premises,  both  for 
light  and  power,  at  a  small  yearly  rental  or 
on  low  instalment-payments.  Thus  the  farmer 
may  have  the  cost  of  machinery  spread  out  over 
a  number  of  years,  and  the  saving  effected  in 
manual  and  animal  labour  would  be  far  more 
than  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  investment;  and 
thus  he  will  not  only  own  the  equipment  in  the 
end,  but  all  the  time  will  have  been  making  a 
good  profit  out  of  its  use. 

Central-station  companies  can  readily  sell 
bonds  and  obtain  funds  with  which  to  supply 
their  farmer  clients  with  all  the  motors  neces- 
sary. The  credit  of  farmers  is  of  the  highest 
character,  so  that  the  companies  would  not  only 
have  a  profit  on  the  sale  of  the  machinery  but 


34  ELECTRICITY 

would  be  secure  in  the  principal,  and  for  many 
years  would  have  a  greatly  increased  demand 
for  electricity  which  would  never  have  existed 
if  the  farmer  had  been  compelled  to  go  into 
debt  on  his  own  account  for  his  machinery. 

Co-operative  Methods. — On  American  farms 
at  present,  a  certain  degree  of  co-operation 
exists,  as  for  example  in  the  threshing  of  grain. 
Farmers  growing  small  grain,  such  as  wheat, 
oats,  rye,  barley,  etc.,  after  the  grain  is  har- 
vested, have  a  threshing  machine  outfit  visit 
their  fields  where  a  day  or  so  is  spent  in  thresh- 
ing the  grain,  the  outfit  then  proceeding  to  the 
next  farm.  Such  outfits  are  usually  private 
business  enterprises  conducted  by  two  or  three 
farmers  in  a  district,  each  with  his  own  outfit. 
Essentially,  however,  it  is  a  form  of  co-opera- 
tion, and  under  American  conditions  probably 
the  most  effective  form  in  which  co-operation 
can  be  carried  out,  the  small  profits  of  the  owner 
being  a  negligible  factor  compared  with  the 
convenience,  and  in  fact,  the  necessity  to  the 
individual  farmer  of  such  an  apparatus  which 
is  too  expensive  for  his  own  private  use  unless 
he  has  a  farm  of  enormous  size. 


CENTRAL  STATION  SEEVICE       35 

The  same  principle  can  be  readily  applied  in 
the  case  of  large  electrical  machinery,  such  as 
for  electric  ploughing  and  threshing,  wood-saw- 
ing and  electric  truckage  of  products  in  large 
quantities,  and  water-pumping  for  irrigation, 
as  well  as  for  such  other  purposes  as  may 
be  found  feasible. 

If,  as  will  be  the  case  in  many  instances,  no 
farmer  takes  up,  as  a  private  business  venture, 
such  utilisation  of  electrical  machinery,  it  will 
be  found  perfectly  feasible  for  a  group  of 
farmers  to  co-operate  in  its  use  and  ownership, 
either  in  the  form  of  a  partnership,  or  as  a  so- 
ciety or  corporation.  Central  stations  could 
also  interest  themselves  financially  in  such  un- 
dertakings, which  would  be  conducted  not  for 
profit  but  for  mutual  benefit. 

One  of  the  great  advantages  of  central-sta- 
tion participation  in  such  matters  lies  in  the 
feature  of  maintenance  and  repairs.  The  cen- 
tral station  would  at  all  times  have  supervi- 
sion over  the  machinery,  and  would  have  it  in- 
spected regularly  and  repaired  without  delay 
when  out  of  order.  The  farmer  being  relieved 
of  this  responsibility  would  have  every  encour- 


36  ELECTBICITY 

agement  to  adopt  electrical  machinery,  and  once 
made  acquainted  by  practical  experience  with 
its  great  advantages  he  would  find  new  and 
profitable  uses  for  it. 

Co-operation  between  central-station  compa- 
nies and  farmers,  and  of  groups  of  farmers,  in 
whatever  form  it  may  be  carried  out,  offers  a 
great  field  for  national  enrichment.  For  the 
farmer  to  be  fully  equipped  with  every  modern 
appliance  will  enable  him  to  get  from  the  soil 
the  greatest  source  of  national  wealth,  the  big- 
gest crops  with  the  least  expense.  This  means 
cheaper  food  and  greater  net  incomes  for  every- 
body. No  better  way  of  reducing  the  cost  of 
living  can  be  found  than  this,  and  no  better  way 
of  investing  surplus  capital  devised. 

The  subject  is  one  that  deserves  the  most  pro- 
found consideration  of  bankers  and  capitalists 
throughout  the  country  and  the  particular  at- 
tention of  all  electrical  companies. 

The  matter  may  be  taken  up  directly,  as  has 
been  pointed  out,  by  the  central-station  compa- 
nies, through  the  issuance  of  bonds  and  the  pur- 
chase of  farm  machinery  with  the  proceeds. 
Separate  farm  equipment  companies  could  be 


CENTRAL  STATION  SEEVICE       37 

organised  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  farmers 
with  implements,  and  such  equipment  compa- 
nies could  be  financed  by  local  bankers  and  busi- 
ness men,  an  important  farm  equipment  com- 
pany being  organised  in  each  locality. 

Capital  for  Farming  Operation. — One  of  the 
best  forms  of  security  in  the  money  markets  of 
the  world  is  railroad  equipment  notes,  and  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  farm  equipment  notes 
would  be  just  as  desirable.  It  is,  indeed,  the 
duty  of  local  capitalists  and  bankers  to  place 
their  funds  at  the  disposal  of  farmers,  as  such 
use  of  the  money  in  the  surrounding  region  re- 
acts favourably  upon  local  conditions.  Large 
bankers  in  central  cities  could  also  find  a  profit- 
able employment  for  millions  of  capital  in  the 
promotion  of  farm  equipment  companies  on  a 
large  scale.  Such  companies  could  both  manu- 
facture as  well  as  sell  the  farm  machinery,  and 
also  be  interested  in,  if  not  the  proprietors  of, 
central-station  companies. 

The  capital  of  the  country,  owing  to  the  for- 
mation of  trusts,  has  largely  been  absorbed  in 
manufacturing  developments  which,  though  pos- 
sibly of  greater  immediate  profit,  have  taken 


38 


ELECTEICITY 


Fig.  3.  Portable  transformer  much  used  on  German  farms  for  tempo- 
rary large  consumption  of  current,  as  in  ploughing,  threshing,  etc. 
In  this  apparatus  the  current  is  drawn  from  a  high  tension  trans- 
mission line  and  stepped  down  to  a  low  voltage  for  motor  use. 

money  away  from  rural  investments.     This  has 
left    agriculture    neglected    and    incapable    of 


CENTRAL  STATION  SERVICE       39 

keeping  pace  with  other  phases  of  progress, 
with  the  result  that  all  forms  of  manufacturing 
are  now  sharply  checked  by  the  drag  of  the 
farm  in  the  form  of  high  prices  of  commodities, 
a  condition  which  would  never  have  arisen  had 
farmers  had  ample  capital  placed  at  their  dis- 
posal on  terms  as  favourable  as  those  granted 
to  manufacturers. 

Agriculture  must  now  be  given  its  proper  en- 
couragement, and  enabled  to  contribute  its  share 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  country,  and  this  can 
be  done  in  no  way  so  well  as  by  the  expansion 
of  the  use  of  electricity  on  the  farm.  A  most 
powerful  element  of  stimulation  will  then  be  in- 
jected into  the  veins  of  the  whole  country  and 
a  new  era  of  prosperity  will  ensue. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  usual  voltage  employed  for  the  transmission 

systems  of  central  station  concerns? 

2.  What  are  the  usual  charges  for  electric  current  for  central- 

station  service? 

3.  What  is  a  kilowatt-hour? 

4.  Why  are   two  different  rates   charged,  one   for  light  and 

the  other  for  power? 

5.  What  is  understood  by  a  rural  central  station? 

6.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  co-operation  of  central  sta- 

tions and  farmers? 

7.  Would  the  farmer  benefit  in  making  use  of  central  station 

service  ? 


CHAPTEE  III 
GENEEATING  ELECTEIC  POWEE 

IT  is  generally  recognised  that  central  sta- 
tions and  public  utility  companies  are  the  best 
sources  of  supply  from  which  to  draw  electric- 
ity, owing  to  their  reliability,  cheapness  and 
convenience.  The  advantage  of  using  central- 
station  service  may  be  enumerated  as  follows : 

Smaller  investment;  no  capital  tied  up  in  generating  ap- 
paratus, fuel,  supplies,  etc. 

Reliability  of  supply;   failure  almost  unknown. 

Any  accident  to  a  machine  is  confined  to  it  and  does  not  af- 
fect any  other  portion  of  the  shop.  In  all  other  systems 
the  machines  are  not  thus  independent. 

Availability  of  supply  at  any  moment,  day  or  night,  and  cost 
for  power  always  in  proportion  to  amount  of  work  being 
done. 

Ample  overload  capacity. 

No  delay  from  lack  of  power;  power  always  ready. 

Good  voltage  regulation;  lights  steady  and  motor-speeds  con- 
stant. 

Freedom  to  locate  machinery  anywhere  within  several  miles 
of  the  farm  building,  and  to  relocate  it  at  any  time  with- 
out reference  to  power  supply. 

Ability  to  enlarge  farm  capacity  at  any  time  in  order  to  keep 
pace  with  demands,  without  expensive  changes  in  power 
plant. 

40 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWER     41 

Freedom  from  all  expenses  and  annoyance  chargeable  to  opera- 
tion of  power  plant;  this  includes  labour  troubles,  fuel 
shortage,  break-downs,  etc. 

When  the  user,  however,  is  located  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  distributing  lines  of  central- 
station  companies,  it  is  necessary  to  install  an 
isolated  plant  to  supply  light,  heat  and  power, 
and  such  a  plant  is  a  much  more  profitable  in- 
vestment than  the  installation  of  other  kinds 
of  power,  such  as  individual  gas,  oil  or  steam 
engines,  to  operate  the  different  farm  machines. 
The  great  advantage  of  using  electricity  on  the 
farm  for. light,  heat  and  power,  is  amply  dem- 
onstrated in  other  chapters. 

Isolated  Plants. — For  the  purpose  of  gener- 
ating electricity  in  isolated  plants,  various 
forms  of  power  are  utilised,  depending  on  the 
locality  of  the  farm  or  country  residence  and 
the  nature  and  source  of  the  available  fuel  or 
water  supply.  The  various  methods  of  gener- 
ating electricity  will  be  discussed  in  the  follow- 
ing order : 

WATERPOWER  PLANTS. 
STEAMPOWER  PLANTS. 
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION  ENGINE  PLANTS. 
WINDMILL  POWER  PLANTS. 
ELECTRIC  STORAGE  BATTERIES. 


42  ELECTEICITY 

THE    WATERPOWER    PLANT 

Water  Available. — In  order  to  generate  elec- 
tric energy  from  waterpower,  it  is  necessary  to 
take  advantage  of  a  fall  of  water,  and  if  a 
natural  fall  is  not  available,  an  artificial  fall 
must  be  erected;  and  the  higher  the  fall,  the 
smaller  the  quantity  of  water  necessary  to  ob- 
tain the  desired  capacity  of  the  generating 
plant.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  waterfall  be 
located  on  the  premises  or  estate,  for  it  may  be 
many  miles  distant  without  affecting  the  result ; 
yet  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  first  cost  and 
other  kindred  reasons,  it  is  desirable  to  have 
the  plant  near  at  hand. 

In  many  instances,  where  the  stream  runs 
through  the  property  or  in  the  neighbourhood, 
cheap  power  may  be  derived  by  building  a  dam 
across  it,  thus  increasing  the  height  of  the  water 
for  driving  a  wheel  or  turbine.  Where  the 
stream  is  of  more  than  ordinary  size,  part  of 
the  water  may  be  deflected  and  led  through  con- 
crete, wooden  or  steel  conduits  to  the  water- 
wheel.  The  water  discharged  from  the  wheel 
may,  in  many  cases,  be  distributed  for  irriga- 
ting purposes,  a  factor  of  vital  importance  in 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWER     43 

all  branches  of  agriculture,  as  will  be  discussed 
later  on. 

Water-Wheels. — One  of  the  first  essentials 
is  to  choose  the  right  type  of  water-wheel. 
This  depends  on  the  height  and  volume  of  water 
available.  For  a  high-head  fall,  a  Pelton  wheel, 
consisting  of  a  steel  disc  with  buckets  mounted 
on  the  rim,  gives  best  efficiency.  The  water  is 
directed  against  the  buckets,  causing  the  wheel 
to  run  at  high  speed.  For  low-head  falls,  tur- 
bines of  the  different  designs  should  be  chosen 
to  fit  the  particular  cases  at  hand.  A  low-head 
turbine,  as  the  name  implies,  is  designed  to  use 
large  quantities  of  water  with  a  low  fall. 
These  turbines  operate  at  low  speed.  There 
are,  of  course,  many  other  factors  to  be  con- 
sidered from  an  engineering  point  of  view,  and 
much  depends  upon  the  ability  of  the  engineer 
who  is  chosen  to  build  the  plant.  With  all 
water-wheels,  proper  regulating  devices  must 
be  installed,  so  that  the  operation  of  the  plant 
may  be  as  automatic  as  possible,  thus  mate- 
rially cutting  down  the  operating  expenses  and 
doing  away  with  constant  attention.  It  is  an 
easy  matter  to  so  equip  a  small  waterpower 


44 


ELECTEICITY 


plant  that  the  entire  plant  can  be  started,  con- 
trolled or  stopped  from  the  residence,  or  from 
any  distant  point  on  the  farm,  at  any  hour  of 
the  day  or  night. 


Fig.  4.     Hydroelectric  generating  plant  on  a  large  farm. 

Generators. — The  energy  of  a  rotating  water- 
wheel  is  converted  into  electricity  by  means  of 
a  dynamo  or  electric  generator,  driven  either 
by  a  belt  from  the  water-wheel  or  directly  con- 
nected to  its  shaft.  From  the  generator  the 
energy  is  led  over  copper  wires  to  the  switch- 


GENEEATING  ELECTEIC  POWEE     45 

board,  from  which  it  is  distributed  to  the  differ- 
ent places  where  it  is  needed,  such  as  in  the  va- 
rious power-motors  and  lights  in  the  house,  barn 
or  garden. 

The  illustration  (see  opposite  page)  shows  the  exterior  view 
of  a  waterpower  plant  on  a  large  farm.  This  plant  supplies 
current  to  operate  all  kinds  of  labour-saving  devices  and  ma- 
chinery. 

The  power-house  was  built  by  a  farmer  with  up-to-date 
ideas.  His  farm  had  running  through  it  a  good  sized  stream. 
He  conceived  the  idea  of  harnessing  the  water,  converting 
the  energy  into  electricity  and  using  the  current  to  operate 
his  farm  machinery.  By  engaging  a  competent  engineer,  he 
was  enabled  to  get  more  horsepower  than  he  figured.  The 
engineer  designed  the  proper  kind  of  dam  for  the  stream,  and 
also  the  best  type  of  house  for  the  conditions  at  hand. 

The  most  efficient  water  wheels  and  generators  are  best  known 
to  engineers,  and  unless  one  is  well  versed  in  engineering,  he 
is  likely  to  buy  machines  and  apparatus  which  would  not  be 
suitable,  because  he  would  not  be  able  to  state  the  correct  con- 
ditions for  his  needs.  The  farmer  or  any  one  else  putting 
up  a  generating  station,  whether  it  be  large  or  small,  will  not 
go  astray  by  consulting  a  competent  engineer. 

Size  of  Equipment. — It  requires  close  study 
to  ascertain  the  proper  size  and  most  econom- 
ical machines  for  the  particular  conditions. 
The  work  on  the  farm  must  be  divided  up  so 
that  all  the  heavy  work  of  different  kinds  is 
not  being  done  at  the  same  time.  For  instance, 
if  the  total  horsepower  for  all  kinds  of  machin- 
ery amounted  to  thirty-five  it  would  not  be  nee- 


46  ELECTEICITY 

essary  to  install  a  35-korsepower  generator,  as 
the  heavy  machinery,  such  as  reaping,  thresh- 
ing, etc.,  aggregating  20  horsepower,  should  not 
be  operated  when  the  small  machines,  such  as 
fodder-cutting  machines,  dairy  machines,  etc., 
are  running,  this  lighter  work  being  done  at 
another  time.  The  same  rule  applies  to  light- 
ing the  premises  at  various  hours ;  do  not  burn 
all  the  lights  at  the  same  time.  By  such  a  lay- 
ing out  of  the  work,  a  25-horsepower  generator 
is  made  ample  for  the  conditions  at  hand.  It 
is  in  just  such  close  calculations  as  this  that 
the  engineer  is  required,  and  where  he  effects 
great  savings.  Probably  many  persons  would 
add  up  the  total  amount  of  horsepower  required 
and  buy  a  machine  of  such  capacity,  uncon- 
sciously figuring  everything  running  at  once, 
whereas  such  is  seldom  the  case.  A  larger  ma- 
chine than  is  necessary  means  that  more  money 
is  tied  up  and  is  not  bringing  any  returns. 

In  order  to  give  a  definite  idea  of  what  may 
be  accomplished  by  harnessing  a  stream,  the 
following  example  is  given: 

The  discharge  of  a  stream  is  1500  cu.  ft.  of  water  per  min- 
ute. The  fall  of  the  water  is  15  feet.  The  weight  of  water 
per  cubic  foot  is  63  pounds.  One  mechanical  horsepower  is 


GENEEATING  ELECTEIC  POWEE      47 

33,000  foot-pounds  per  minute  or  the  equivalent  of  lifting 
33,000  pounds  one  foot  in  one  minute.  The  effective  horse- 
power of  a  water-wheel  generator  set  is  75  per  cent,  of  the 
gross  or  total  horsepower  of  the  stream-  Therefore  the  actual 
horsepower  of  the  stream  developed  in  this  specific  case  is 
1500  x  15  x  63' 

=  32.17  or  say  33  horsepower. 

33000  x. 75 

Such  an  output,  though  from  a  small  stream,  can  sufficiently 
supply  a  farm  of  considerable  size. 

Cost  of  Plants. — To  show  what  the  cost  of  a 
completely  installed  hydroelectric  station  may 
be,  an  example  of  an  Illinois  farmer's  plant  is 
given;  it  must  be  premised  that  much  of  the 
work,  such  as  building  the  dam,  was  done'by  his 
own  farm-hands.  A  dam,  200  feet  long,  11  feet 
high,  and  made  up  of  concrete,  raised  the  water 
six  feet  above  the  normal  level,  thus  giving  a 
total  of  17  feet.  With  this  head,  the  stream  is 
capable  of  developing  between  18  and  20  horse- 
power. 

The  power-house  is  located  some  150  feet  fur- 
ther down  stream  and  about  1750  feet  from  the 
residence.  It  is  equipped  with  a  15-horsepower 
water-wheel,  driving,  by  means  of  a  belt,  a  ten- 
kilowatt  electric  generator.  The  current  is  led 
to  the  switchboard  in  the  residence  by  copper 
wires  strung  on  poles.  The  whole  equipment 
is  so  simply  laid  out,  that  no  attention  in  the 


48  ELECTEICITY 

power-house  is  necessary.  The  starting  and 
stopping  of  the  water-wheel  in  this  case  is  done 
from  the  residence  by  pulling  a  quarter-inch 
steel  cable,  running  over  sheaves  on  the  pole- 
line  carrying  the  copper  wires;  but  this  prim- 
itive device  could  better  be  replaced  by  an  up- 
to-date  method  operated  by  pushing  a  button  in 
the  residence. 

The  current  is  used  for  lighting  the  residence, 
the  barns  and  the  grounds,  and  for  actuating 
several  electric  motors.  One  3-horsepower 
motor,  by  means  of  shafting,  operates  a  churn, 
a  cream-separator  and  laundry  machinery;  an- 
other 3-horsepower  motor  is  installed  in  a  dairy 
barn  for  operating  milking-machines,  while  a 
large  15-horsepower  motor  is  mounted  on  skids 
and  transported  from  place  to  place  as  desired, 
for  cutting  and  grinding  feed,  cutting  ensilage, 
shelling  corn,  sawing  wood  and  operating  a 
grain  elevator  and  a  deep-well  pump.  The  op- 
erating expenses  of  the  plant  are  exceptionally 
low,  amounting  to  but  ten  dollars  per  year,  and 
the  total  equipment  cost  only  $1200. 

Another  concrete  example  of  the  cost  of  a 
water-power  plant  for  farm  use,  according  to 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWER     49 

The  American  Agriculturist,  is  found  in  Port- 
age County,  Ohio.  A  dam,  350  feet  long,  was 
constructed,  of  which  320  feet  was  built  of  earth, 
while  the  remainder  was  of  concrete,  so  de- 
signed as  to  act  as  an  overflow  weir  in  time  of 
freshets.  The  water-wheel  works  under  a  head 
of  10  feet,  8  inches,  drives  an  electric  generator 
at  a  speed  of  1300  'revolutions  per  minute,  and 
is  able  to  furnish  electric  current  for  100  16 
candlepower  lamps,  or  their  equivalent  in  the 
working  of  small  motors.  The  machinery  is 
placed  in  a  small  separate  building,  12x14  ft., 
and  little  attention  is  required  for  it,  except  to 
start  and  stop  the  water-wheel,  and  to  oil  the 
wheel  and  the  generator,  which  is  done  every 
two  weeks.  The  cost  of  this  installation  was 
more  than  would  be  required  for  similar  plants, 
because  a  long  dam  had  to  be  constructed  and 
a  long  transmission  was  necessary.  A  brief 
outline  of  the  cost  is  as  follows: 

Dam  excavation,   etc $  367 

Flume    40 

Power-house    50 

Machinery 25'6 

Transmission-line  poles    (cut  on  farm)     20 

Copper  wires    124 

Home-wiring  and  fixtures    185 


TOTAL   $1022 


50  ELECTEICITY 

Waterpower  Developments  on  Farms  in  the 
State  of  Netv  York.— Waterpowers  on  small 
streams  afford  the  means  of  bringing  many  eleo- 


Fig  5.     Interior  of  an  hydroelectric  generating  plant  at  a  large  farm. 

trical  conveniences  and  labour-saving  appliances 
to  neighbouring  farm  homes.  An  interesting 
account  of  some  of  these  farm-waterpower  in- 
stallations in  New  York  State  is  contained  in 
an  illustrated  report,  "Water-Power  for  the 
Farm  and  Country  Home/'  prepared  by  David 
R.  Cooper,  engineer-secretary  for  the  New  York 
State  Water  Supply  Commission.  After  di- 
recting attention  to  the  many  small  streams 
which  might  be  harnessed  to  do  useful  work, 
the  report  enumerates  the  many  uses  hereto- 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWEE     51 

fore   mentioned   for   electrical   energy   on   the 
farm,  and  in  the  buildings. 

Examples  of  actual  work  done  by  electric 
power  are  given  by  Mr.  Cooper,  as  follows: 

A  6-hp.*  motor  will  thresh  250  bu.  of  oats,  grind  20  bu. 
of  corn,  grind  48  bu.  of  feed,  grind  and  press  250  bu.  of  apples 
or  saw  seven  cords  of  hard-oak  stovewood  an  hour,  in  the  last 
instance  taxing  the  ability  of  four  men  to  stack  the  wood  in 
cords  as  fast  as  it  is  sawed.  A  12-hp.  motor  driving  a  50-in. 
circular  saw  will  cut  4000  ft.  of  oak  or  5000  ft.  of  poplar 
lumber  in  a  day.  A  10-hp.  motor  running  a  16-in.  ensilage 
cutter  and  blower  will  deliver  ensilage  into  a  30-ft.  silo  at 
the  rate  of  7  tons  per  hour.  A  1-hp.  motor  will  supply  water 
for  ordinary  farm-house  use. 

Actual  installations  described  in  the  report 
yield  the  following  data : 

At  Oneida.—The  100-acre  farm  of  Mr.  E.  B. 
Miner,  near  Oriskany  Falls,  Oneida  County,  N. 
Y.,  is  devoted  to  hop  raising,  mixed  farming 
and  dairying.  The  sons  of  the  family  studied 
engineering  at  college  and,  becoming  convinced 
of  the  possible  uses  of  the  stream  near  their 
home,  designed  and  built  up  the  17-hp.  water- 
power  plant  and  dam  which  now  supplies  the 
electricity  for  lighting  the  farm  buildings  and 
saves  many  chores.  This  timber-crib  dam,  36  ft. 
long,  raising  the  water  four  feet,  is  carried  on 

*  Hp.  =  horsepower. 


52  ELECTRICITY 

heavy  concrete  sills  cast  in  a  2-ft.xl.5  ft.  ditch 
dug  across  the  stream  bed.  Above  the  crest 
of  the  dam  is  a  row  of  1-ft.  flash-boards  held 
erect  by  chains  locked  by  pins  which  can  be 
withdrawn  by  a  capstan,  dropping  the  boards  in 
case  of  high  water.  There  is  also  a  supple- 
mentary 40-ft.  spillway,  with  its  crest  a  few 
inches  higher  than  the  main  dam,  helping  to  dis- 
charge heavy  floods.  From  the  dam  a  60-ft. 
canal  and  forebay  leads  down-stream  to  the 
power-house,  where  a  vertical-shaft  17-hp.  tur- 
bine wheel  is  installed.  A  double-pulley  ar- 
rangement increases  the  speed  of  the  water- 
wheel's  rotation  to  the  1100  r.  p.  m.  (revolutions 
per  minute)  required  by  the  12.5-kilowatt  belted 
generator  at  the  far  end  of  the  12  ft.  x  16  ft. 
power-house. 

Oriskany  Creek,  at  the  point  utilised  by  Mr. 
Miner,  drains  14  square  miles,  furnishing 
throughout  nearly  all  the  year  the  flow  re- 
quired to  drive  the  water-power  plant  at  full 
load  under  the  available  head  of  6  ft.  From 
the  power-house  to  the  farm  buildings,  1700  ft. 
distant,  an  aluminum  wire  is  carried  on  20- 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWER     53 

ft.  poles  set  at  100  ft.  intervals.  The  energy 
thus  delivered  is  used  to  operate  a  circular  saw, 
machine  lathe  and  drill  press,  vacuum-cleaning 
system  (used  also  for  operating  milking-ma- 
chines in  the  twenty-five-stall  cow-barn),  a 
cream-separator,  churn,  grindstone,  ventilating 
and  cooling  fans,  electric  iron,  sewing-machine, 
egg-beater  and  water-pump.  The  house  is  also 
warmed  by  five  electric  heaters,  maintaining  an 
indoor  temperature  of  75  degrees  when  it  is  at 
zero  outside.  The  water-wheel  and  generator 
run  continuously  night  and  day,  and  self-oiling 
attachments  cause  the  plant  to  require  little  at- 
tention. Mr.  Miner  says  the  waterpower  is 
worth  to  him  several  times  its  cost,  which  he 
does  not  state,  but  which  engineers  estimate  to 
have  been  about  $1800  complete  for  dam, 
power-house,  line  and  equipment. 

At  Lake  George. — Mr.  Stephen  Loines,  of 
Brooklyn,  has  a  summer  home  on  the  shore  of 
Lake  George,  his  property  including  a  seven- 
acre  pond  at  an  elevation  of  180  ft.  above  the 
lake.  The  outlet  of  this  body  of  water  is 
caught  in  a  6-inch  spiral  riveted  pipe  and  con- 


54  ELECTEICITY 

veyed  1600  ft.  down  a  gulley  to  the  little  power- 
house, which  contains  a  10-hp.  24-inch  impulse 
wheel,  operating  under  a  165-ft.  head.  The  6.5- 
kw.  generator  delivers  energy  to  a  sixty-cell 
house-lighting  battery;  an  eighty- four-cell  bat- 
tery for  a  35-f t.  cabin  launch ;  a  forty-eight-sell 
battery  for  a  20-ft.  open  launch,  and  a  forty-cell 
battery  for  an  electric  roadster,  all  of  which  are 
in  nearly  continuous  use  five  months  in  the  year. 
Another  development  on  the  estate  comprises 
a  2-inch  pipe  with  a  fall  of  110  ft.  in  its  1200 
ft.  length,  operating  a  3-hp.  impulse  wheel  used 
to  drive  a  saw  belted  to  a  shaft.  An  unusual 
use  of  hydroelectric  energy  on  the  Loines  es- 
tate is  the  operation  of  the  roof  of  the  private 
astronomical  observatory  just  above  the  cot- 
tage. The  dome  roof  is  mounted  on  wheels  and 
is  moved  by  a  1.5-hp.  motor. 

At  Lawyer sville. — Mr.  J.  Van  Wagenen,  of 
Lawyersville,  Schoharie  County,  N.  Y.,  a  prac- 
tical and  scientific  farmer,  utilises  the  15-ft. 
head  created  by  a  disused  saw-mill  dam.  His 
5-hp.  water-wheel  is  belted  to  a  3-kilowatt,  125- 
volt  generator,  the  output  of  which  is  conveyed 
over  3700  ft.  of  pole-line  to  the  houses  of  the 


GENERATING-  ELECTEIC  POWER     55 

owner  and  a  neighbour.  As  it  was  undesirable 
to  visit  the  plant  half  a  mile  away,  night  and 
morning,  to  stop  and  start  the  turbine,  as  well 
as  inadvisable  to  waste  water  during  the  dry 
season  by  letting  the  plant  run  all  the  time,  the 
turbine  valve  has  been  attached  to  a  pull-wire 
extending  to  the  bedroom  window  of  a  neigh- 
bour living  700  ft.  distant.  Pulling  this  wire  at 
5  A.  M.  starts  the  plant,  and  releasing  it  at  night 
allows  a  counterweight  to  drop,  turning  off  the 
water.  For  this  service  of  starting  and  stop- 
ping the  machine  the  neighbour  gets  his  elec- 
tric service  free  for  his  house  and  barn.  The 
cost  of  maintenance  of  the  plant  has  been  tri- 
fling. The  owner  wired  his  house  at  a  cost  of 
$40  for  material,  doing  the  work  himself.  The 
plant  cost  a  little  over  $500  (see  below),  the 
dam  being  already  built  and  most  of  the  instal- 
lation work  being  done  by  the  owner  and  at 
odd  hours. 

Dynamo,  3  kw.   (second-hand)    $  50.00 

Water-wheel,  9  kw.   (naked  wheel)    55.00 

Governor    (new)     75.00 

Wire  (7,400  ft.)    210.00 

Labour  (installing  wheel)    40.00 

Fixtures    (lamps  and  the  like)    38.00 

One  small  motor  2  hp.  (new)    50.00 

TOTAL  .  $518.00 


56  ELECTEICITY 

Such  a  water-plant  Mr.  Van  Wagenen  de- 
clares to  be  equivalent  to  a  hired  man's  serv- 
ices, doing  away  with  many  chores  and  labo- 
rious duties  about  the  place. 

At  Delhi.— Mr.  J.  T.  McDonald  has  a  farm 
near  Delhi,  N.  Y.,  which  is  equipped  with  three 
water-wheels  utilising  the  15-ft.  head  created 
by  a  dam  and  900  feet  of  raceway.  A  25-hp. 
turbine  runs  a  saw-mill  and  a  feed  mill ;  a  3-hp. 
wheel  runs  small  saws  and  machine  tools;  and 
a  6-hp.  wheel  drives  the  electric  generator. 
The  turbine  gate  is  opened  and  closed  by  a 
switch  in  the  owner's  house,  while  the  field  cir- 
cuit and  rheostat  are  brought  to  the  same  point, 
enabling  the  voltage  to  be  regulated  closely. 

Mr.  Frank  Caspar,  in  Schoharie  County,  has 
a  water-wheel  driving  a  generator  which  lights 
a  furniture  factory,  church,  village  street,  and 
his  own  house.  The  plant  is  started  and 
stopped  by  a  pull-wire  which  opens  a  small 
valve  admitting  water  pressure  to  a  cylinder, 
the  piston  of  which  operates  the  gate. 

In  addition  to  a  36-inch  impulse-wheel  oper- 
ating under  a  210-f  t,  head  and  driving  a  saw-mill 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWER     57 

on  the  place  of  Mr.  Arthur  Cowee,  near  Berlin, 
N.  Y.,  a  smaller  impulse-wheel  is  directly  con- 
nected to  a  3-kw.  (kilowatt)  generator  supply- 
ing electricity  to  160  lamps.  The  penstock  for 
the  main  wheel  is  a  10-inch  cast-iron  pipe  1680 
feet  long. 

At  Chazy. — One  of  the  largest  farm  water- 
power  installations  in  America  is  that  at  the 
"Heart's  Delight"  farm,  of  Mr.  W.  H.  Miner. 
There  are  two  waterpower  sources  for  this. 
The  smaller  is  a  group  of  three  small  dams  built 
across  Tracy  Brook  to  create  storage  reser- 
voirs. From  the  lower  of  these  a  44-inch  pen- 
stock 670  ft.  long  carries  the  water  to  the  power- 
house under  a  19-ft.  head.  Here  two  turbines, 
of  30-kw.  and  12.5-kw.  capacity  respectively, 
are  installed,  driving  220-volt  direct-current 
generators.  At  the  larger  source  a  concrete 
dam  is  built  across  the  Chazy  River,  and  the 
water  is  led  through  a  concrete  penstock,  48x60 
inches  in  section  and  630  ft.  long,  to  a  second 
power-house,  where  a  fall  of  30  ft.  is  obtained. 
Here  two  turbines  drive  alternators,  the  effect 
of  which  is  conducted  to  the  farm  buildings 


58  ELECTEICITY 

three  miles  distant.  Hydraulic  rams  are  also 
used  for  water-pumping  on  this  farm.  Twenty- 
five  motors  are  installed  for  a  great  variety  of 
purposes,  for  nearly  every  modern  use  of  elec- 
tricity is  employed  on  this  farm. 

STEAM   POWER  PLANTS 

One  of  the  most  widely  used  means  of  gen- 
erating electricity  is  the  steam  engine.  Steam 
for  the  purpose  is  produced  in  a  boiler,  by  burn- 
ing coal,  oil,  wood,  refus.e,  etc.,  but  in  most  cases 
coal  is  used,  and  that  in  grades  of  various  qual- 
ities. 

Coal  is  divided  into  two  main  classes,  an- 
thracite and  bituminous ;  the  former  resembling 
carbon  or  coke,  the  latter  pitch  or  bitumen. 
There  are  a  number  of  degrees  in  the  nature  of 
these  two  qualities  of  coal,  which  are  graded 
commercially  as  semi-anthracite,  semi-bitumi- 
nous, gas  or  cannel  coal  and  lignite.  Some  of 
these  coals  are  very  soft,  the  most  recent  forma- 
tions or  lignites  being  the  softest,  while  others 
are  of  a  hard  nature,  and  very  often  the  classi- 
fication is  made  of  "hard"  and  "soft"  coal  in 


GENERATING  ELECTRIC  POWER     59 

place  of  anthracite  and  bituminous.  Anthra- 
cite coal  is  supposed  to  be  the  oldest  and  deep- 
est coal  formation  in  existence. 

Engineers  rate  coal  by  heat  units  expressed 
in  British  thermal  units  (always  abbreviated  B. 
T.  U.),  and  it  should  be  bought  on  this  basis, 
because  a  ton  of  one  kind  of  coal  may  produce 
twice  as  much  available  power  in  a  boiler  as  a 
like  quantity  of  another  grade.  On  the  other 
hand,  with  certain  kinds  of  boilers  and  grates, 
and  possibly  additional  equipment,  more  power 
may  be  obtained  from  a  lower  grade  or  cheaper 
coal.  It  is  from  such  conditions  and  probable 
combinations  that  the  kind  of  coal  to  be  used 
for  the  most  economical  operation  is  deter- 
mined. 

The  user  of  coal  must  bear  in  mind  that  coal 
contains  a  certain  percentage  of  moisture, 
volatile  matter,  fixed  carbon,  ashes  and  sul- 
phur. 

Storage  of  Coal. — Coal,  particularly  in  large 
quantities,  should  be  stored  under  a  roof,  as 
otherwise  it  loses  much  of  its  heat  value,  due 
to  slow  chemical  changes  which  start  as  soon 


60  ELECTEICITY 

as  the  coal  is  mined  and  continue  until  it  is 
burned.  These  losses  are  greatest  with  soft 
coal  and  greater  in  warm  weather  and  in  the 
tropics  than  in  cool  air.  The  losses  are  slight 
when  the  coal  is  fresh,  but  increase  rapidly  as 
it  ages.  Care  must  be  exercised  in  the  storing 
of  coal  to  prevent  spontaneous  combustion, 
which  is  more  troublesome  with  soft  coal  than 
with  hard.  The  most  obvious  remedy  is  to  pro- 
vide proper  ventilation,  and  to  avoid  storing  it 
in  high  heaps. 

Boiler  Room. — The  boiler  room  for  a  farm 
or  country  estate,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
safety,  is  best  located  in  a  separate  house,  yet 
in  many  instances,  conditions  warrant  the  use 
of  the  basement  of  the  residence  or  barn.  In 
any  case,  wherever  the  boiler  may  be  placed, 
the  coal-bin  must  be  so  located  that  the  cost  of 
handling  the  coal  is  a  minimum.  Along  with 
the  handling  of  the  coal,  the  easy  and  econom- 
ical removal  of  ashes  must  be  arranged. 

Engine  Room. — The  engine  room  is  prefer- 
ably located  alongside  the  boiler  room,  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  a  partition  wall.  When  this  is 


GENERATING  ELECTRIC  POWER      61 

not  possible,  the  engine  must  not  be  placed  too 
far  from  the  boiler  room,  because  then  long 
steam  pipes  would  have  to  be  installed,  which 
will  cause  the  steam  to  condense  in  the  pipes, 
even  when  it  travels  with  high  velocity.  When 
large  quantities  of  water,  due  to  condensed 
stearn,  get  into  an  engine  there  are  possibili- 
ties of  accidents.  Of  course  there  are  instances 
where  the  engines  cannot  be  separated  from  the 
boilers,  as  for  example  in  the  case  of  the  port- 
able engine  mounted  upon  the  boiler. 

Size  of  Engines. — For  plants  of  the  size 
shown,  it  is  the  common  practice  to  install  two 
engines,  so  that  on  a  light  load  one  engine  is 
running,  and  when  the  load  is  heavy  both  en- 
gines carry  it.  For  instance,  two  50-hp.  en- 
gines are  installed,  and  when  the  load  increases 
above  50  hp.  the  single  engine  running  will 
carry  the  over-load  for  some  time.  When  the 
load  passes  65-hp.,  however,  both  engines  must 
be  put  into  operation,  and  together  might  then 
be  called  upon  to  carry  a  load  of  up  to  130-hp. 
for  some  time.  In  addition,  by  the  adoption  of 
the  two-engine  installation,  repairs  on  one  of 


62  ELECTEICITY 

the  engines  can  readily  be  made  without  shut- 
ting down  the  entire  plant. 

Efficiency. — The  problem  involved  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  steam-electric  power-plant  must 
necessarily  be  treated  in  conjunction  with  the 
cost  of  construction,  operation  and  mainte- 
nance ;  as  it  is  the  ultimate  aim  to  produce  elec- 
tricity at  a  minimum  of  expense.  The  ef- 
ficiency of  a  steam-electric  power-plant  is  low, 
ranging  from  5  per  cent,  to  14  per  cent,  of  the 
heat  value  of  the  coal.  Fourteen  per  cent,  is 
extremely  economical  and  can  only  be  secured 
by  the  best  designed  and  equipped  plant  and  by 
scientific  operation.  The  average  plant  of  re- 
cent construction  operates  with  an  efficiency  of 
from  8  per  cent,  to  10  per  cent. 

The  following  table  taken  from  the  au- 
thor's " Steam  Electric  Power  Plants,"  shows 
the  approximate  loss  per  pound  of  coal  in  a  well 
conducted,  first  class  power  plant.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  coal  is  assumed  to  have  a  heat- 
ing value  of  14,000  B.  T.  IT.,  of  which  the  equiv- 
alent of  12.8  per  cent,  or  1792  B.  T.  U.  are  de- 
livered to  the  switch  board. 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWER      63 


APPROXIMATE  LOSSES  IN  A  WELL-CONDUCTED  FIRST- 
CLASS  POWER  PLANT,  PER  POUND  OF  COAL 


Losses  in  B.  T.  U.  , 
centages  per  pount 

ind  Per- 
[  of  coal 

14,000  B.T.  U. 

100% 

Items 

Ashes     

210 

1.5 

Radiation  and  leakage  of  boiler  .  . 
Radiation  and  leakage  of  flue  .  .  . 
Gases  through  chimney     

560 
140 
1960 

4. 
1.0 
14. 

Blow-off  and  leakage  . 

210 

1  5 

Radiation  and  leakage  of  piping  . 
Friction  and  leakage  of  engine   .  . 
Rejected    to   condensers    
Electrical  loss 

210 
140 
8540 

28 

1.5 

1.0 
61. 
0.2 

Required  for  all  auxiliaries    .... 

910 

6.5 

Total    

12908 

92.2 

Returned  by  Feed  Water  Heater  5  per  cent,  or  700  B.  T.  U. 
(British  Thermal  Units). 

Delivered  to  the  bus-bars  105  -  92.2  =  12.8  per  cent,  or  1792 
B.  T.  U. 

Since  the  efficiency  of  a  steam-electric  power- 
plant  is  so  low,  every  increase  in  economy,  be  it 
even  a  fraction  of  a  per  cent.,  should  be  looked 
after,  and  it  will  be  to  the  advantage  of  the 
plant  owner  to  consult  an  engineer  who  is  ex- 
pert on  the  subject.  The  exhaust  steam  of  the 
engine  or  turbine,  which  usually  is  wasted,  can 
be  utilised  for  heating  the  feed  for  the  cattle  or 
heating  water  for  general  purposes  on  the  farm, 


64  ELECTEICITY 

or  it  may  be  used  for  heating  the  residence  in 
winter,  or  in  making  ice  in  summer. 

INTERNAL-COMBUSTION    ENGINE    PLANTS 

Where  natural  or  illuminating  gas  is  at  hand, 
or  in  the  neighbourhood,  it  can  be  made  useful 
in  operating  an  electric  generator  set.  When 
not  available,  a  gas  may  be  generated  or  pro- 
duced on  the  premises  and  used  in  driving  an 
engine  just  the  same  as  natural  gas.  Such  in- 
stallations often  are  slightly  higher  in  cost  at 
first  than  a  steam  plant,  but  the  operating  cost 
is  less.  Close  calculations  are  necessary  to  de- 
termine which  power  may  have  the  advantage. 

Producer  Gas. — The  gas-producer  plant  con- 
sists of  a  producer,  scrubber  and  a  gas-tank. 
The  producer  is  a  furnace  where  the  coal  is 
burned  at  a  low  rate  of  combustion.  With  the 
hopper  and  magazine  to  the  furnace  properly 
filled,  no  attention  is  necessary  for  some  time. 
The  gas  is  slowly  generated  and  led  to  a  tank 
filled  with  coke,  called  a  scrubber.  Here  the 
impurities  of  the  gas  are  removed  by  passing 
through  a  spray  of  water  playing  on  the  coke. 
The  gas  is  next  led  to  a  comparatively  small 


GENERATING  ELECTRIC  POWER      65 

tank  or  reservoir,  which  supplies  the  gas  en- 
gine. 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  a  gas-producer 


Fig.    6.     A    small    electric    generating    outfit,    consisting    of    a    gasoline 
motor  directly  connected  with  an  electric  generator. 

plant  are:  economy,  simplicity  of  the  machin- 
ery, safety  in  operation,  low  maintenance  cost; 
no  nuisance  from  smoke,  and  ease  of  starting 
and  stopping. 

Gas  Engines. — A  gas  engine  appears  to  be 
very  similar  to  a  steam  engine,  but  has  this  dif- 
ference, that  the  steam  engine  has  steam  ex- 


66  ELECTEICITY 

pansion  on  both  sides  of  the  piston-head,  while 
in  the  gas  engine,  the  gas  explosion  takes  place 
on  one  side  of  the  piston-head  only.  The  gen- 
erator is  usually  directly  connected  (mounted 
on  the  shaft  of  the  engine's  fly-wheel),  and 
in  some  instances  it  is  driven  by  a  belt  from  the 
engine's  pulley. 

In  the  producer-gas  engine  plant,  a  total  effi- 
ciency of  15  to  17  per  cent,  and  even  higher  is 
obtainable,  through  the  proper  selection  of  ma- 
chinery making  up  the  plant. 

The  producer  plant  can  be  operated  on  different  kinds  of 
fuel.  Those  in  most  common  use  are  "pea"  and  "buckwheat" 
anthracite,  lignite,  foundry  or  gas-house  coke  (broken  to  small 
size),  and  in  some  cases,  charcoal.  The  relative  values  of 
different  coals  can  be  approximately  determined  not  only  by 
chemical  analysis,  but  by  combustion  in  a  coal  calorimeter, 
or  by  actual  trial  in  a  gas  producer.  With  the  calorimeter 
test,  the  standard  unit  of  heat  is  the  British  thermal  unit 
( B.  T.  U. )  denned  as  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  pure  water  one  degree  (1°) 
Fahr.  This  is  equivalent  to  778  foot-pounds  of  energy,  from 
which  we  find  that  1  hp.  is  equivalent  to  2545  B.  T.  U.'s  per 
hour.  The  anthracite  commonly  used  has  a  heat  value  of  ap- 
proximately 13,000  B.  T.  U.'s  per  pound. 

The  fuel  consumption  with  some  producer-gas  plants  does 
not  exceed  1J  pounds  of  pea-size  anthracite  per  brake  horse- 
power per  hour,  on  test-runs  at  a  rated  load  of  10  to  12  hours' 
duration.  This  is  equivalent  to  16,250  B.  T.  U.'s  of  heat  sup- 
plied per  brake  horsepower  per  hour,  and  to  a  complete  plant 
efficiency  of  2545  -i-  16250  =  15.7%. 


GENEEATING  ELECTEIC  POWEE      67 

A  Gas-producer  Plant. — An  interesting  ex- 
ample of  a  gas-producer  installation  is  that  on 
a  De  Kalb  County  farm  in  the  northern  part  of 
Illinois.  Here  there  is  a  gas  engine  and  dy- 
namo, and  a  pole-line  distributing  electricity  to 
about  150  electric  lamps,  to  various  types  of 
machinery  in  use  about  the  farm,  and  to  one 
small  motor  in  the  house.  There  is  also  a  stor- 
age battery  of  52!  cells,  so  that  electricity  is 
available  at  night  or  other  time  when  the  plant 
may  be  shut  down.  The  owner  utilises  the  gas 
from  his  producer  as  fuel  under  the  boiler  of 
his  steam-heating  system  in  the  house.  An- 
thracite pea  coal  is  used  to  charge  the  producer, 
and  about  two  bushels  per  day  are  required, 
One  hired  man  operates  the  plant,  and  he  is 
enabled  to  give  considerable  time  to  other  du- 
ties. 

Gasoline  and  Alcohol  Engines. — Inspired  by 
the  demand  for  a  high  state  of  perfection  in 
this  type  of  machinery  for  operating  automo- 
biles and  launches,  inventive  genius  and  manu- 
facturing skill  have  combined  to  produce 
gasoline  engines  fully  equal  to  the  best  steam 
engines  in  reliability,  and  far  excelling  them  in 


68  ELECTEICITY 

economy.  For  years  gasoline  engines  have  been 
built  by  various  concerns  to  meet  the  exacting 
specifications  and  rigid  tests  of  the  United 
States  Government. 

This  type  of  engine  is  of  the  general  "  inter- 
nal-combustion'' type,  in  which  the  fuel  is  fed 
into  the  engine  in  the  form  of  a  gas  previously 
vaporised  in  a  carbureter,  then  compressed  in 
the  engine  and  exploded  by  an  electric  spark. 

Fuel  Alcohol. — A  very  important  substitute 
for  gasoline  or  other  fuels  used  at  present,  and 
particularly  for  the  farm,  is  alcohol,  which  may 
be  produced  by  the  farmer  himself  from  a  va- 
riety of  materials  raised  by  him.  Any  of  the 
starchy  plants  yields  alcohol,  as  the  south- 
ern cassava,  sweet  potatoes,  white  potatoes, 
and  sugar  beets.  Corn  cobs  yield  11  gallons  of 
alcohol  to  the  ton,  and  sweet  cornstalks  7  gal- 
lons. Many  refuse  plants  may  be  used  and  also 
much  unmarketable  fruit  and  vegetable  matter. 
Alcohol,  as  produced  on  the  farm,  is  ready  to 
supply  light,  heat  and  power  when  other  sources 
of  fuel  fail.  Many  localities  in  the  West  suffer 
for  fuel  in  winter,  when  storms  are  severe  or 
railroad  cars  are  scarce.  Alcohol  manufac- 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWER      69 

tured  for  such  use  will  not  be  subject  to  a  rev- 
enue tax.  Potatoes  which  may  be  frozen,  and 
of  no  use  for  other  purposes,  are  for  this  pur- 
pose equal  to  good  potatoes. 

Petroleum  Engines. — Instead  of  using  gaso- 
line for  fuel,  in  localities  where  petroleum  oil  is 
more  readily  obtainable,  many  engines  are  de- 
signed to  run  efficiently  on  the  heaviest  and 
cheapest  grade  of  petroleum.  Even  the  Cali- 
fornian  crude  oils,  containing  a  large  percent- 
age of  asphaltum,  may  be  employed  without  the 
slightest  difficulty.  On  many  occasions  oils 
have  been  tested  experimentally,  which  were  too 
heavy  to  run  from  the  can  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, but  which  on  being  warmed  up  became 
liquid  enough  to  handle  and  were  found  to  be 
entirely  satisfactory  for  fuel  in  an  engine.  The 
ordinary  grades  of  crude  oil  produced  by  the 
various  refineries  as  a  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  kerosene  and  gasoline  are  well  suited 
for  use  in  this  class  of  engine ;  and  may  be  ob- 
tained in  large  quantities  at  the  price  of  3  to  5 
cents  per  gallon,  depending  on  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation. 

The  operating  expenses  of  these  engines  are 


70  ELECTKICITY 

exceptionally  low,  and  the  entire  plant  is  a 
simple  one.  It  consists  of  the  engine,  a  small 
water-circulating  system  and  a  storage  tank. 
When  the  engine  is  shut  down,  and  the  oil  sup- 
ply shut  off,  all  expenses  cease  until  ready  to 
start  again.  The  fuel  oil  is  preferably  run  by 
gravity  directly  from  the  tank-car  in  which  it  is 
received  into  a  storage  tank,  from  which  it  is 
pumped  into  the  engine  itself.  No  refuse  of 
any  kind  is  produced  in  the  operation  of  this 
engine.  Bobinson,  in  "Gas  and  Petroleum  En- 
gines, ' '  tabulates  the  results  of  various  tests  of 
a  25-hp.  oil  engine,  and  shows  that  the  lowest 
oil  consumption  per  actual  or  brake  horsepower, 
is  a  trifle  less  than  %  lb.,  while  the  average  is 
just  one  pound  of  oil.  As  the  gallon  of  fuel  oil 
weighs  approximately  7%  Ibs.,  it  will  be  read- 
ily seen  that  one  horsepower  per  hour  can  be 
produced  at  a  cost  of  2  cents.  This  cost  does 
not  include  overhead  charges  such  as  insurance, 
interest  and  depreciation  of  plant,  labour,  etc. 

WINDMILL;  POWER  PLANTS 
Another  source  of  energy  for  generating  elec- 
tric power  is  the  windmill,  which  is  extensively 
used  throughout  the  country  for  pumping  water 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWEE      71 

and  for  other  rural  puposes.  It  is  a  machine 
which  has  been  in  use  for  some  thousands  of 
years  to  absorb  the  power  of  moving  air  and 
convert  it  into  useful  work.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  tenth  century  mills  of  the  Dutch  type 
were  in  general  use  throughout  western  Europe, 
and  with  the  advancement  of  the  art  they  have 
been  steadily  improved.  The  Dutch  wheels 
were  built  from  50  to  100  ft.  in  diameter  and 
produced  from  one  to  ten  horsepower.  They 
were  used  in  Holland  to  operate  the  water- 
drainage  lifts,  for  driving  mill-stones,  and  for 
numerous  other  purposes  requiring  power.  A 
few  of  these  wheels  were  built  in  America,  but 
the  settlement  of  our  great  prairies  developed 
a  necessity  for  the  use  of  a  smaller  wheel,  the 
cost  of  which  would  be  within  the  reach  of  the 
farmer  and  ranchman.  It  was  found  by  va- 
rious builders  that  a  small  wheel,  12  to  15  feet 
in  diameter,  filled  with  wooden  slats,  would  give 
sufficient  power  and  approximately  the  proper 
speed  to  operate  such  pumps  as  were  commonly 
built  for  hand  use. 

About  40  years  ago  the  American  wheel  was 
made  safe  and  practical  by  grouping  the  slats 


72  ELECTEICITY 

or  sails  in  sections  which  were  pivoted  under 
control  of  centrifugal  governor-weights  which 
altered  the  exposed  surface  of  the  slats,  thereby 
preventing  the  wheel  from  running  too  fast  in 
high  winds.  Another  method  of  governing  the 
speed  of  the  wheel  was  by  means  of  a  side  vane 
which  was  attached  to  a  horizontal  arm  rigidly 
fixed  to  the  head  carrying  the  wheel,  springs 
or  weights  being  used  to  retain  the  wheel  per- 
pendicular to  the  main  vane  in  light  winds. 
High  winds  acting  upon  the  side  vane  would 
turn  the  wheel  slightly,  thereby  reducing  its  ef- 
fective surface  and  preventing  danger-produc- 
ing speed. 

A  windmill  should  be  able  to  run  in  a  light 
wind;  and  it  should  swing  easily  on  its  turn- 
table, to  enable  it  to  face  up  in  such  a  light  wind. 
The  wheel  itself  should  be  at  least  15  ft.  above 
all  houses,  barns  and  trees,  or  any  other  wind 
obstruction  within  400  ft.;  in  other  words,  the 
tower  should  be  high  enough  to  catch  the  light- 
est wind  which  may  blow  from  any  point  of  the 
compass,  and  at  the  same  time  it  should  be 
above  eddies  and  changeable  air  currents. 
Fortunately,  high  winds  occur  more  frequently 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWER      73 

during  the  winter  months,  when  most  of  the 
grinding,  feed-cutting,  wood-sawing  and  other 
work  requiring  power  is  to  be  done.  While  a 
power  windmill  will  do  an  astonishing  amount 
of  work  in  a  moderate  wind,  the  best  results 
can  be  obtained  in  winds  blowing  from  25  to 
35  miles  per  hour.  With  a  30-mile  wind  one 
man  can  scarcely  shovel  corn  into  a  two-hole 
self -feed  sheller  fast  enough  to  keep  the  hopper 
full,  and  three  or  four  men  will  be  kept  busy  to 
handle  poles  or  cordwood  and  the  resulting  fire- 
wood while  operating  a  wood-saw,  while  a  man 
with  the  help  of  a  boy  can  scarcely  sack  the 
feed-meal  produced  by  a  mechanically  operated 
grinder. 

Windmill  Construction. — A  power  windmill 
which  will  not  take  care  of  and  regulate  itself 
in  any  wind  less  than  a  tornado  is  an  unprofit- 
able investment,  as  the  owner  cannot  always 
take  advantage  of  those  high  winds  which  really 
furnish  the  best  power.  It  is  therefore  essen- 
tial in  order  to  obtain  the  best  economy,  to  se- 
lect a  form  designed  to  take  advantage  of  the 
moderately  high  winds.  One  of  the  most  widely 
known  windmills  is  a  machine  built  entirely  of 


74  ELECTRICITY 

steel,  and  properly  galvanised  to  protect  it  from 
all  kinds  of  weather  conditions.  The  following 
table  shows  the  horsepower  of  such  wheels  in 
different  wind  velocities : 


SS. 


12-ft.    .          .2  .67  1.6  3.12  5.4  8.5 

16-ft.    .          .36         1.21  2.9  5.5  8.5  15.3 

In  tests  by  Prof.  F.  H.  King,  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin,  a  12-foot  windmill  of  this 
type  connected  to  a  grinder  for  reducing  corn 
to  feed-meal  produced  the  following  results : 

Wind  velocity  in  miles, 

per  hour   10.4     15.3     20.8     25.9      28.5      31.3 

Meal  ground  per  hour, 

in  pounds 139.2  236.8  474.5    831        1005     1068 

Oats  and.  other  light  grains  will  feed  slower 
than  corn  in  proportion  to  their  weight.  Also, 
if  exceedingly  fine  meal  is  to  be  made  the  quan- 
tity will  be  less  in  proportion  to  its  fineness. 

The  12-foot  windmill  will  grind  through  the 
year  on  an  average,  75  to  80  bushels  of  meal  per 
day,  and  with  proper  attachments  do  all  the 
pumping,  feed-cutting,  shelling  and  wood  saw- 


GENERATING  ELECTRIC  POWER      75 

ing  for  a  large  farm.     The  14  and  16-ft.  wind- 
mills are  proportionately  more  powerful. 

Electric  Generating  Equipment. — The  wind- 
mill is  readily  and  easily  applicable  to  an  elec- 
tric generating  set  which  should  be  equipped 
with  the  automatically  regulating  devices.  Al- 
though the  windmill  plant  regulates  itself  auto- 
matically to  the  speed  of  the  wind,  a  valuable 
adjunct  to  it  is  a  storage  battery,  which  is  fed 
automatically  from  a  generator,  and  when  fully 
charged  is  automatically  cut  out  until  needed, 
when  it  is  again  put  into  service,  but  this  time 
giving  up  energy  instead  of  storing  it.  The 
storage  battery  is  a  necessary  feature  with  an 
electric  generating  set  for  any  farm  or  resi- 
dence. 

ELECTRIC  STORAGE  BATTERIES 

The  principal  function  of  a  storage  battery  in 
small  plants  is  the  furnishing  of  current  for  a 
considerable  period  of  time,  as  at  night  after 
a  generator  has  been  stopped.  The  operation 
of  the  battery  consists  of  cycles  of  charge  and 
discharge  covering  practically  the  capacity  of 
the  battery.  The  engine  develops  mechanical 
energy,  which  is  transformed  into  electrical  en- 


76  ELECTEICITY 

ergy  by  the  dynamo.  The  storage  battery  acts 
just  like  a  water  tank;  it  is  a  reservoir  which 
stores  this  electrical  energy  to  be  drawn  upon 
whenever  needed,  so  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
run  the  engine  and  dynamo  continuously  in 
order  to  have  electric  light  at  all  hours  of  the 
day  and  night.  Storage  batteries  may  be 
charged  each  day,  but  larger  batteries  require 
charging  only  once  in  two  or  three  days,  and 
others  still  larger  will  store  current  for  a  week 
or  more.  Batteries  require  an  engine  to  be  run 
four  to  ten  hours  to  charge  them,  the  time  de- 
pending upon  how  much  electricity  has  pre- 

N 

viously  been  used  from  the  battery. 

Function  and  Service. — In  plants  for  farms 
and  country  residences,  the  capacity  of  engine 
and  generator  must  be  sufficient  for  the  maxi- 
mum normal  load;  but  during  certain  hours  of 
each  day  no  such  amount  of  energy  is  required. 
This  means  a  low  degree  of  efficiency  and  high 
fuel  costs.  The  installation  of  a  storage  bat- 
tery corrects  this  condition  by  permitting  the 
operation  of  the  generator  at  the  full  or  the 
most  economical  load  and  then  shutting  it 
down  entirely,  the  battery  providing  the  cur- 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWER      77 

rent  for  the  balance  of  the  time.  When  on 
special  occasions  an  extra  heavy  load  is  re- 
quired, the  battery  may  be  discharged  in  par- 
allel with  generator,  and  demands  equal  to  the 
combined  capacity  of  the  battery  and  generator 
may  be  supplied.  Also,  the  generating  equip- 
ment may  be  stopped  for  adjustment  or  repair 
without  interrupting  the  service,  the  battery 
being  always  available  for  unexpected  demands 
for  power. 

Installation. — Storage  batteries  for  light  and 
power  plants  are  usually  installed  either  in 
glass  jars,  glass  tanks  or  lead-lined  wooden 
tanks.  The  cells  of  the  small  type  are  installed 
in  glass  jars  resting  on  a  bed  of  sand  contained 
in  a  glass  or  wooden  sand-tray,  supported  by 
four  glass  insulators  under  its  corners.  Cells 
of  medium  capacity  are  usually  installed  in 
tanks  of  pressed  glass  resting  on  insulators 
capped  by  small  cushions  of  either  lead  or  rub- 
ber to  keep  the  hard  surfaces  out  of  contact. 
Lead-lined  wooden  tanks  are  often  used  for 
plants  of  medium  size  and  always  for  those  of 
large  size.  This  type  of  cell  is  assembled  at 
the  place  of  installation.  Cells  which  are  not 


78  ELECTEICITY 

too  heavy  are  generally  installed  on  two-tier 
wooden  racks  in  order  to  save  floor  space.  The 
larger  cells  are  set  in  one  tier,  the  wooden 
stringers  being  supported  by  vitrified  brick  set 
upon  the  floor  or  by  another  set  of  glass  in- 
sulators resting  on  vitrified  tiles. 

The  number  of  cells  is  determined  by  the 
voltage  of  the  system.  Isolated  plants  of  the 
various  voltages  require  batteries  of  the  num- 
ber of  cells,  as  follows : 

Voltage  of  System  Number  of  Cells 

110  60 

115  64 

125  70 

220  120 

230  126 

250  138 

The  size  of  the  individual  cells  needed  is  de- 
termined by  the  number  of  lamps,  their  candle- 
power  and  efficiency,  and  the  length  of  time  they 
must  be  supplied  on  one  discharge. 

Rating. — Storage  batteries  are  rated  in  "  am- 
pere hours."  This  method  defines  their  capac- 
ity, and  is  the  product  of  the  number  of 
amperes  of  discharge  multiplied  by  the  number 
of  hours  such  discharge  can  continue.  The 
capacity  at  the  eight-hour  rate  is  considered 
the  normal.  As  the  ampere  discharge  is  in- 


GENERATING  ELECTRIC  POWER     79 

creased  above  this  rate,  the  ampere-hour  ca- 
pacity decreases,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  follow- 
ing example: 

Capacity 

Rate,  Hours  Amphere  Discharge  Amphere-Hours 

8    ...............................      12£  100 

5    ...............................      17i  87£ 

3   ...............................     25  75 

1    ...............................     50  50 


Thus  while  12%  amperes  may  be  obtained 
for  eight  hours  (100  ampere-hours)  if  the  dis- 
charge be  made  at  25  amperes  it  can  be  con- 
tinued for  but  three  hours  (75  ampere-hours), 
the  remaining  capacity  of  the  battery  being, 
however,  available  at  a  lower  rate.  On  dis- 
charge at  less  than  the  eight-hour  rate,  the 
capacity  of  the  battery  is  slightly  greater,  but 
this  need  not  be  considered  in  ordinary  calcu- 
lation. 

The  size  of  a  110-volt  battery  can  be  approx- 
imately determined  by  the  method  outlined  in 
the  following  example,  the  conditions  being 
that  the  battery  will  be  charged  at  any  time  dur- 
ing the  day  convenient  to  operate  the  generator, 
and  that  the  battery  will  be  able  to  furnish  cur- 
rent for  lamps  according  to  the  following 
schedule  : 


80  ELECTRICITY 

Time                 No.  of  Lamps     Amperes     No.  of  Ampere- 
Hours  Hours 

5  P.  M.  to  10  P.  M.  Twenty  16  c.  p.          10             5  50 
10  P.  M.  to  6  A.  M.  Two           8  c.  p.              £           8  4 

6  A.  M.  to  8  A.  M.  Six          10  c.  p.            3             2  6 

60 

The  last  discharge-rate  is  three  amperes,  and 
there  will  be  required  a  battery  of  sufficient  size 
to  furnish  60  ampere-hours  at  a  three-ampere 
rate.  This  being  less  than  the  eight-hour  rate 
a  battery  having  a  normal  rating  of  60  ampere- 
hours  is  required. 

The  above  example  shows  a  condition  where 
the  full  normal  capacity  of  the  battery  is  used 
in  carrying  the  load. 

RURAL   POWER  DISTRIBUTION 

Electric  power  distribution  may  be  divided 
into  high-tension  and  low-tension  systems,  the 
former  used  for  long-distance  transmission  and 
the  latter  for  local  distribution.  For  high-ten- 
sion lines  alternating  current  is  usually  used, 
and  for  low-tension  distribution,  the  direct  or 
continuous  current.  Both  systems  are  used 
with  great  success,  and  it  cannot  be  said  ab- 
solutely whether  alternating  or  direct  current 
is  the  more  advantageous  for  rural  distribu- 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWER      81 

tion;  it  depends  entirely  on  the  conditions  at 
hand. 


Fig.   7.      Electric  power  transmission  system  on  a  New  York  farm. 

Direct  Current. — In  making  comparisons  be- 
tween the  two  systems,  the  following  points 
may  be  of  interest :  In  direct-current  transmis- 
sion, the  construction  of  the  line  is  very  simple, 
only  two  wires  being  required,  which  are 
strung  on  a  single-pole  line.  The  insulators  are 
simple  in  construction  and  comparatively 
cheap,  so  that  a  high  degree  of  reliability 


82  ELECTEICITY 

against  a  break-down  of  the  line  is  assured. 
A  direct  current  may  be  used  as  generated  di- 
rectly for  power  and  lighting,  and  the  power- 
motors  of  the  various  farm  implements  can  be 
connected  with  the  distribution  system  for 
lighting.  Where  large  power-motors  are  con- 
nected to  a  direct-current  lighting  circuit, 
however,  it  is  preferable  to  run  a  separate 
power-circuit,  as  otherwise  in  starting  and  stop- 
ping the  motors  fluctuation  in  a  lighting-system 
may  occur.  Direct-current  motors  have  a 
slightly  higher  efficiency;  they  are  more  com- 
pact in  construction  than  the  alternating-cur- 
rent motors,  and  they  have  a  greater  overload 
capacity. 

The  speed-regulating  and  starting  devices  of 
these  motors,  as  well  as  the  wiring  system,  are 
very  much  simpler  and  cheaper  than  those  of 
the  alternating-current  motor  system.  As  indi- 
cated, the  direct-current  transmission  system 
should  be  used  for  long-distance  transmission, 
as.  the  current  cannot  be  transformed  without 
the  medium  of  motor  generators  which  are  di- 
rect current  transformers.  The  latter  are  far 
more  expensive  than  the  static  transformers 


GENERATING  ELECTRIC  POWER      83 


Fig.   8.     Portable  transformer  and  field  telephone  connection. 

used  in  connection  with  alternating  current  sys- 
tems. 

Alternating  Current. — The  advantage  of  the 
alternating  current  can  best  be  realised  when 


84  ELECTRICITY 

high  voltage  is  applied.  A  distant  waterpower 
can  be  economically  utilised  with  this  system, 
and  the  voltage  can  be  stepped  down  to  the 
pressure  desired  at  the  place  of  consumption. 
The  transformers  are,  of  course,  extra  items  of 
expense,  and  owing  to  the  power-factor  of  alter- 
nating-current generators  larger  generators 
and  motors  must  be  used  than  for  equivalent 
direct-current  machines.  These  machines  are 
therefore  slightly  more  expensive  than  direct- 
current  ones  of  equal  capacity,  and  the  regu- 
lating device  is  more  complicated  and  more 
expensive. 

Owing  to  the  additional  equipment  which  is 
necessary  in  high-voltage  alternating-current 
transmission  systems,  the  efficiency  is  slightly 
less  than  in  a  direct-current  system,  but  these 
disadvantages  are  outstripped  by  the  possibil- 
ity of  transmitting  an  alternating  current  a 
long  distance.  For  instance,  in  present  prac- 
tise, alternating  current  is  being  transmitted 
about  280  miles,  while  direct  current  seldom  is 
transmitted  more  than  15  miles.  By  the  use 
of  alternating  current,  cheap  fuel  or  water- 
power  at  a  distance  may  be  utilised. 


GENERATING  ELECTRIC  POWER      85 

Portable  Transformers. — In  many  instances 
current  is  wanted  in  a  certain  section  of  the 
field  for  a  short  time  only,  and  to  install  a 
stationary  transformer  would  be  poor  policy. 
To  fill  such  an  emergency,  a  portable  trans- 
former is  used,  mounted  on  wheels  drawn  by 
two  horses,  which  can  be  placed  in  position  in  a 
short  time,  and  then  returned  to  the  barn.  A 
number  of  farmers  can  own  such  a  portable 
transformer  in  common,  and  a  large  saving  in 
first  cost  be  thereby  gained. 

Transmission  Lines. — A  typical  rural  distri- 
bution high-tension  line  running  through  a  field 
is  illustrated  (Fig.  8).  The  upper  lines  are  used 
for  transmitting  electric  power  at  high  voltage 
while  the  two  lower  lines  are  for  a  telephone, 
so  that  communication  between  the  operator  of 
the  farming  machinery  and  the  central  station 
can  readily  be  established.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  on  the  pole  in  the  foreground  there  is  a 
device  near  the  wires  of  the  high-tension  lines 
which  is  designed  to  protect  the  system  against 
lightning.  From  this  lightning-arrester,  a  wire 
leads  into  the  ground  by  which  the  lightning  is 
led  to  the  ground.  Such  lightning-arresters 


86  ELECTEICITY 

are  placed  at  intervals,  thus  reducing  the  dam- 
age   possible    from    electrical    discharges    in 

storms. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Describe  the  various  advantages  of  central-station  service. 

2.  What  are  the  sources  of  power  for  isolated  plants? 

3.  What  is  a  hydroelectric  plant? 

4.  What  should  be  the  size  of  the  equipment  in  relation  to 

the  power   developed? 

5.  Describe   the  method  'of  calculating  the   horsepower   of   a 

given  water. 

6.  Give    a   description   of   a   complete   hydroelectric    installa- 

tion of  an  Illinois  farmer. 

7.  Give  some  examples  of  waterpower  developments  on  farms 

in  the  State  of  New  York. 

8.  Describe  the  methods  of  generating  steam. 

9.  How  is  coal  rated? 

10.  How  should  coal  be  stored? 

11.  How  should  boiler  and  engine  rooms  be  arranged? 

12.  What  is  the  average  efficiency  of  a  well-designed  steam- 

power  plant? 

13.  What  is  an  internal-combustion  engine? 

14.  Describe  the  action  of  a  gas  engine. 

15.  What  is  producer-gas? 

16.  What  is  the  average  efficiency  of  a  producer-gas  plant? 

17.  What  is  an  alcohol  engine? 

18.  How  could  alcohol  be  produced  at  the  farm? 

19.  What  is  an  oil  engine? 

20.  What  is  the  cost  of  producing  one  hp.-hour,  excluding  over- 

head charges,  at  the  engine  shaft? 

21.  As  this  cost  does  not  include  losses  in  transmission  and 

in  motors,  etc.,  would  it  be  fair  to  compare  this  cost 
with  the  charges  made  by  central-station  concerns? 

22.  How  may  the  wind  be  utilised  to  do  farm  work? 

23.  Describe  the  difference  between  the  early  Dutch  and  the 

modern  American  windmill. 


GENERATING  ELECTEIC  POWEE      87 

24.  How  should  the  speed  of  a  mill  be  regulated? 

25.  Give  the  horsepower  of  some  windmills  of  a  designated  size 

and  wind-velocity. 

26.  What  should  the  electric   equipment  of  a  windmill-power 

plant  consist  of? 

27.  What  is  the  purpose  of  storing  electric  energy? 

28.  Describe  the  installation  of  a  storage-battery  plant. 

29.  What  is  the  rating  of  a  storage-battery  plant? 

30.  Describe  the  different  systems  of  rural  power  distribution. 

31.  What   are   the   advantages   and   disadvantages   of   alterna- 

ting and  direct-current  systems? 

32.  What  are  the  advantages  of  portable  transformers? 


Motor-driven  centrifugal  pump. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ELECTRIC  MOTOR  APPLICATIONS 

SMALL  electric  motors  are  revolutionising  the 
methods  of  performing  many  of  the  operations 
of  modern  rural  life.  Almost  any  process  that 
must  be  performed  repeatedly  with  little  or  no 
variation  can  be  done  successfully  and  much 
more  economically  by  a  motor-driven  mechan- 
ical device  than  by  any  other  means.  Electric 
motors  in  small  sizes  are  rapidly  passing  from 
the  class  of  luxuries  into  the  class  of  necessities, 
and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  within  a  few  years 
these  little  labour-savers  will  be  doing  the 
larger  part  of  the  routine  work  on  the  farm 
as  well  as  in  the  home,  inn,  shop,  or  factory  of 
the  town. 

Convenience  and  Safety. — They  may  be  lo- 
cated in  almost  any  place  where  current  is  sup- 
plied for  electric  lights,  and  can  be  started  and 
stopped  as  simply  as  turning  light  on  or  off, 
so  that  the  machine  operated  may  be  placed 

88 


ELECTEIC  MOTOR  APPLICATIONS     89 

here  or  there  with  sole  reference  to  the  con- 
venience of  the  work  to  be  done,  the  light,  ven- 
tilation, etc.,  and  with  little  regard  to  the  source 
of  power.  An  ordinary  flexible  lamp-cord  with 
a  connection-plug  serves  to  conduct  current  for 
the  smaller  sizes  of  motor  from  any  convenient 
lamp-socket,  and  the  whole  device  can  be  moved 
about,  even  while  working.  Perfect  safety  to 
the  operator,  to  the  motor,  and  to  the  material 
being  handled  or  the  work  being  done,  is  as- 
sured. All  conducting  parts  are  effectually 
covered  so  that  electric  shock  is  practically  im- 
possible, and  moving  parts  are  so  covered  that 
clothing  or  material  cannot  be  injured.  They 
are  so  extremely  simple  that  even  the  most  in- 
experienced person  can  operate  them  success- 
fully and  safely. 

Great  Economy. — Economy  is  also  a  consid- 
eration in  favour  of  small  motor-operated  de- 
vices, many  of  which,  able  to  do  more  work 
than  a  full-grown  person  can  do  by  hand,  cost 
not  over  one  cent  per  hour.  Moreover,  as  cur- 
rent is  taken  only  while  the  motor  is  operating, 
the  expense  stops  when  the  machine  does.  The 
economy  of  space  gained  is  sometimes  an  im- 


90  ELECTEICITY 

portant  matter.  Motor-operated  devices  oc- 
cupy minimum  space,  and  the  output  of  a  farm 
can  be  materially  increased  by  substituting 
them  for  older  methods  of  driving,  often  in 
preference  to  enlarging  the  space. 

The  Electric  Motor  as  a  Household  Servant. 
— In  many  a  country  home  the  small  motor  has 
solved  the  servant  problem,  either  by  making 
it  possible  to  do  without  a  servant,  or  by  mak- 
ing the  work  so  pleasant  and  agreeable  that 
good  servants  are  glad  to  remain  indefinitely. 
Small  motors  do  the  hard  work,  such  as  turning 
the  washing  machine  and  wringer,  moving  the 
carpet-cleaner,  floor-polisher,  dish-washer,  buff- 
ing and  polishing  wheels,  etc.  The  sewing  ma- 
chine, for  instance,  a  necessity  in  every  house- 
hold, and  always  so  trying  to  the  strength  of 
many  housekeepers,  can  be  "run"  with  perfect 
satisfaction  by  a  motor,  and  with  practically 
no  effort  on  the  part  of  the  operator  except  to 
guide  the  cloth.  After  having  driven  a  ma- 
chine by  foot-power,  and  experienced  the  result- 
ing feelings  of  weariness  and  possibly  backache, 
what  could  be  more  agreeable  than  to  have  a 
motor  do  the  work?  The  tiresome  rocking  mo- 


ELECTRIC  MOTOR  APPLICATIONS     91 

tion  of  the  treadle  is  no  longer  necessary;  the 
motor  takes  all  the  drudgery,  working  quietly 
and  tirelessly,  for  a  minute,  an  hour,  or  the 


Fig.   9.      Portable  general  utility  motor  for  domestic  purposes. 

whole  day  as  desired, — and  all  at  a  surprisingly 
low  cost.  The  control  is  perfect,  much  better 
than  when  operating  by  foot-power,  and  is 
easily  learned.  Pressing  a  button  or  turning 
a  small  switch  starts  the  motor  as  easily  as 
lighting  or  extinguishing  an  electric  lamp. 


92 


ELECTEICITY 


Slight  pressure  on  the  toe  of  the  treadle  then 
starts  the  machine,  and  the  speed  depends  en- 
tirely on  the  pressure  applied,  varying  from  a 


Fig.   10.      Motor-operated  potato  peeler  on  a  farm. 

few  revolutions  per  minute  to  full  speed.  A 
single  stitch  can  be  taken  or  the  machine  can 
be  run  rapidly  and  then  stopped  almost  in- 
stantly. 

Motors  are  extensively  used  for  driving 
washing  and  wringing  machines.  The  presence 
of  such  motor-operated  machines  in  the  house- 
hold is  a  very  material  aid  in  solving  the  serv- 


ELECTRIC  MOTOR  APPLICATIONS     93 

ant  question,  since  thus  the  more  laborious  and 
distasteful  features  of  wash-day  are  eliminated. 
The  operation  is  extremely  simple  and  can  be 
readily  learned  by  any  one.  When  the  clothes 
are  in  the  washer  and  the  cover  is  in  place,  a 
turn  of  the  switch  starts  the  motor.  No  atten- 
tion is  required,  and  since  no  rubbing  is  neces- 
sary the  clothes  are  not  torn  or  injured.  The 
power  is  easily  transferred  from  the  washer  to 
the  wringer,  when  the  clothes  can  be  fed 
through  the  rolls. 

Thus  small  motors  are  demonstrating  in  a 
practical  way  the  advantages  of  individual  mo- 
tor-drives for  small  machines,  and  are  success- 
fully operating  thousands  of  labour-saving 
devices.  The  following  is  a  partial  list  of  ma- 
chines which  may  be  advantageously  so  driven, 
and  for  many  of  these  services  no  other  form 
of  power  could  be  used,  and  in  no  case  could 
any  other  power  compete  successfully  with  the 
small  motor. 

Air  Pump  Portable  Motor  Outfit 

Water  Pump  Hay  Press 

Churn  Thresher 

Cream  Separator  Ensilage  Cutter 

Cow  Milker  Bone  Cutter 

Feed  Cutter  Drier 


94  ELECTEICITY 

Corn  Sheller  Wood  Surfacer 

Shredder  Planer 

Drill  Mangle 

Horse  Clipper  Elevator 

Ice-Cream  Freezer  Refrigerator 

Ice  Machine  Meat  Grinder 

Washing  Machine  Lathe 

Ironing  Machine  Circular  Saw 

Sewing  Machine  Band  Saw 

Vacuum  Cleaner  Ice-Making  Machine 

Hay  Hoist  Sprinkling  System 

Grist  Mill  Plough 

Husker  Truck 

In  selecting  a  motor  to  drive  a  given  machine, 
great  care  should  be  used  to  choose  one  suitable 
to  the  particular  purpose  in  view.  It  is  evident 
that  too  large  a  motor  will  make  the  outfit  un- 
necessarily expensive;  on  the  contrary,  if  the 
motor  is  too  small,  failure  will  result.  The  mo- 
tor must  be  of  proper  size  and  must  be  adapted 
to  the  work  in  order  to  produce  the  most  satis- 
factory results. 

Nearly  all  such  machines  may  be  operated  by 
portable  motors,  so  that  one  or  two  motors 
(preferably  of  two  different  sizes)  will  suffice 
to  run  a  dozen  or  even  more  machines  at  once. 
To  facilitate  application,  the  motors,  particu- 
larly those  of  small  size,  are  placed  on  trucks 
or  hand-carriages,  and  the  latter  arrangement 


ELECTRIC  MOTOR  APPLICATIONS     95 

makes  it  possible  and  convenient  for  the  motors 
to  be  carried  up  and  down  stairs  by  two  per- 
sons. Large  motors,  say  above  two-horse- 


Fig.  11.     Motor-operated  dishwasher  and  exhaust  fan  in  a  farm  kitchen. 

power,  are  best  placed  on  a  small  hand-truck, 
or  on  skids,  and  drawn  from  place  to  place  by 
hand  or  by  horses.  With  each  motor  goes  a 
long  flexible  insulated  copper  cable  and  a  plug, 
by  which  connection  is  readily  made  with  the 
distribution  system  through  outlets  located  at 
convenient  places. 


96  ELECTRICITY 

Group  Drive. — Where  it  is  possible  to  have 
several  farming  machines  such  as  dairy  ap- 
paratus, laundry  machinery,  blacksmith-shop 


Fig.  12.  An  electrically  operated  dairy.  Churn,  butter  machine  and 
separator,  operated  from  a  common  motor  by  means  of  counter, 
shaft  and  belts. 

machinery,  etc.,  in  a  single  room,  it  is  best  to 
operate  all  of  them  from  a  shaft  driven  by  a 
single  motor.  Leather  belts  are  used  to  trans- 
mit the  power  from  the  driving  shaft  to  the 
several  machines  and  such  a  system  as  this 
is  known  as  a  " group  drive/' 


ELECTEIC  MOTOR  APPLICATIONS    97 

The  illustration  (Fig.  12)  on  the  opposite  page  gives  a  strik- 
ing example  of  electrically  operated  machinery  in  a  dairy  of 
a  large  farm.  The  first  thing  noticeable  is  the  use  of  the 
group  drive.  The  motor  and  starter  being  on  the  floor  are 
easily  accessible  and  the  shaft  being  on  the  ceiling  is  out  of 
the  way,  while  it  also  serves  to  give  the  belts  their  proper 
length.  As  the  motor  and  shaft  have  a  fixed  speed,  and  the 
various  machines  require  different  speeds,  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  use  pulleys  of  various  sizes  to  get  the  correct 
speed  on  each  machine.  As  the  periods  of  operation  of  the 
machines  differ,  and  as  it  is  thus  necessary  to  stop  a  single 
machine  without  shutting  down  the  motor  and  thus  stopping 
all  machines,  each  machine  has  adjoining  the  driven  pulley 
an  idler  pulley  which  turns  loose  on  the  machine  or  shaft. 
When  the  machine  is  to  be  stopped  the  belt  is  slipped  on  to 
the  idler  pulley  and  the  machine  conies  to  rest  while  the  belt 
continues  to  run.  Although  the  original  machinery  is  in- 
stalled by  competent  engineers,  alterations  are  often  desired 
later  by  the  user  to  accommodate  additional  machines;  and 
as  it  is  necessary  to  calculate  the  size  of  pulleys  and  belts  re- 
quired to  drive  the  additional  machines  the  following  data 
(see  page  98)  may  be  of  assistance. 

Belt  Transmission. — A  simple  rule  for  ascer- 
taining transmitting  power  of  belting,  without 
first  computing  speed  per  minute  that  it  travels, 
is  as  follows :  Multiply  the  diameter  of  the  pul- 
ley in  inches  by  its  number  of  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  this  product  by  the  width  of  the 
belt  in  inches.  Divide  the  result  by  3300  for 
single  belting,  or  by  2100  for  double  belting, 
and  the  quotient  will  be  the  amount  of  horse- 
power that  can  be  safely  transmitted.  The  re- 


98  ELECTRICITY 

sistance  of  belts  to  slipping  is  independent 
of  their  breadth,  consequently  there  is  no  ad- 
vantage derived  in  increasing  that  dimension 
beyond  what  is  necessary  to  enable  the  belt  to 
resist  the  strain  to  which  it  is  subject. 

A  leather  belt  will  safely  and  continuously  resist  a  strain 
of  350  Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  transverse  section,  and  a  sec- 
tion of  .2  of  a  square  inch  will  transmit  tha  equivalent  of 
1  horsepower  when  running  at  a  velocity  of  800  feet  per  min- 
ute over  a  wooden  drum,  and  .4  of  a  square  inch  will  transmit 
a  like  power  running  over  a  turned  cast-iron  pulley. 

Long  belts  are  more  effective  than  short  ones. 

A  single  belt,  1  inch  wide,  travelling  at  a  velocity  of  800 
feet  per  minute  will  transmit  1  horsepower. 

A  double  belt,  that  is  a  belt  of  two  layers  of  leather,  1 
inch  wide,  travelling  550  feet  per  minute,  will  transmit  1 
horsepower. 

When  a  double  belt  is  long  and  runs  over  large  pulleys,  it 
may  be  calculated  to  do  1  horsepower  of  work  at  a  speed  of 
400  feet  per  minute. 

The  upper  side  of  the  pulley  should  always  carry  the  slack 
of  the  belt. 

To  throw  a  belt  on  to  its  pulleys  properly 
after  it  has  been  laid  off  requires  that  it  should 
always  be  laid  first  over  the  pulley  that  is  not 
in  motion,  and  then  be  thrown  over  the  edge 
of  the  moving  pulley  to  its  face.  A  belt  will 
transmit  about  30  per  cent,  more  power  with 
a  given  tension  when  the  grain  (smooth  side 
of  the  leather)  is  in  contact  with  the  pulley, 


ELECTEIC  MOTOE  APPLICATIONS     99 

than  with  the  flesh  side  turned  inward.  The 
leather  is  also  less  liable  to  crack,  as  the  struc- 
ture on  the  flesh  side  is  less  dense,  and  the  fibres 


Fig.  13.     Motor-driven  pump,  showing  flexible  cable  between  motor  and 
permanent  outlet  of  wiring  system  at  wall. 

more  extensible.  The  adhesion  of  belts  is 
greater  on  polished  pulleys  than  on  rough  pul- 
leys, and  is  about  50  per  cent,  greater  on  a 
leather-covered  pulley  than  on  a  polished  iron 
pulley.  Belts  should  be  kept  soft  and  pliable 
by  applying  tallow  occasionally,  and  neat's-foot 
or  liver  oil  mixed  with  a  little  resin  when  they 


100  ELECTEICITY 

become  hard  and  dry.  Eubber  belts  should  al- 
ways be  kept  free  from  grease  or  animal  oils. 
If  they  slip,  moisten  the  inside  of  the  belt  with 
boiled  linseed  oil.  Some  fine  chalk  sprinkled  on 
over  the  oil  will  help  the  belt. 

Size  of  Belts. — In  calculating  the  length  of 
a  belt,  add  the  diameter  of  the  two  pulleys  to- 
gether, multiply  by  3%,  divide  the  product  by 
2,  add  to  the  quotient  twice  the  distance  between 
the  centre  of  the  shafts,  and  the  product  will 
be  the  required  length. 

For  example,  to  ascertain  the  length  of  a  belt  for  a  twelve- 
inch  pulley  and  a  six-inch  pulley,  on  shafting  5  feet  and  3 
inches  between  centres:  Add  the  diameters  of  the  pulleys  to- 
gether ( 12  -f  6  =  18  inches)  ;  multiply  18  by  3J  = 

18       25      450 
—  X  —  =  -     =  561  inches. 
1         88 

Divide  56£  by  2  =  28J ;  add  to  the  quotient  28J  inches,  twice 
the  distance  between  the  centre  of  shafts  (10'  —  6")  equals 
12  feet  10J  inches,  the  required  length. 

This  is  only  a  rough  rule,  and  in  ordering  a 
belt  it  is  a  good  policy  to  add  from  five  to  ten 
per  cent.,  which  may  be  cut  off  when  the  belt 
is  put  in  place.  It  is  also  a  good  rule,  when 
there  is  plenty  of  room,  to  place  the  machinery 
so  that  the  distance  from  centre  to  centre 
of  shaft  is  twenty  times  the  width  of  the  belt. 


ELECTRIC  MOTOR  APPLICATIONS  101 

The  horsepower  of  any  belt  equals  its  velocity 
in  feet  per  minute,  multiplied  by  its  width  and 
divided  by  800  for  single  and  550  for  double 
belts. 

Size  of  Pulleys. — Rules  for  determining  size 
and  speed  of  pulleys  or  gears  are  as  follows: 

(The  driving  pulley  is  called  the  driver,  and 
the  driven  pulley  the  driven.  If  the  number 
of  teeth  in  gears  is  used  instead  of  diameter, 
in  these  calculations,  number  of  teeth  must  be 
substituted  wherever  diameter  occurs). 

To  determine  the  diameter  of  the  driver,  the  diameter  of 
the  driven  and  its  revolutions,  and  also  the  revolutions  .of 
driver  being  given: 

Diameter  of   driven  X  revolutions  of  driven       Diameter        of 
Revolutions  of  driver  driver 

To  determine  the  diameter  of  the  driven,  the  revolutions  of 
the  driven  and  diameter  and  revolutions  of  the  driver  being 
given : 
Diameter  of  driver  X  revolutions  of  driver        Diameter        of 


Revolutions  of  driven  driven 

To  determine  the  revolutions  of  the  driver,  the  diameter  and 
revolutions  of  the  driven,  and  the  diameter  of  the  driver  being 
given : 
Diameter  of  driven  X  revolutions  of  driven         Revolution     of 

Diameter  of  driver  driver. 

To  determine  the  revolutions  of  the  driven,  the  diameter  and 
revolutions  of  the  driver,  and  diameter  of  the  driven  being 
given : 

Diameter  of  driver  X  revolutions  of  driver          Revolution     of 
Diameter  of  driven  .    driven. 


102  ELECTRICITY 

Portable  Motors. — Electric  motors  required 
for  threshing  and  other  heavy  machinery,  are 
larger  and  heavier  than  the  small  motors.  As 


Fig.  14.  Hay  cutter  operated  by  portable  motor,  equipped  with  three 
different  sizes  of  pulleys,  suitable  for  different  speeds  of  driven 
machinery. 

the  large  threshing  and  other  machines  are 
located  in  various  parts  of  the  farm,  the  motors 
and  starters  are  placed  in  wagons  and  hauled  to 
the  grounds  by  horses.  The  motors  are  placed 


ELECTRIC  MOTOR  APPLICATIONS    103 

in  a  closed  carriage,  the  pulley  end  of  the  shaft 
projecting  through  the  side  of  the  carriage. 
The  belt  is  readily  applied  to  the  motor  and 
threshing  or  other  machines  to  be  driven.  A 
flexible  cable  is  easily  connected  to  a  convenient 
plug  of  the  wiring  system  at  the  barn,  or  on 
a  pole  in  the  field. 

As  with  ordinary  threshing  and  other  ma- 
chines which  are  shifted  from  one  farm  to  an- 
other, a  motor  mounted  on  such  a  truck  may 
be  sent  from  farm  to  farm,  thus  saving  expense. 
A  village  or  group  of  farmers  may  own  a  single 
such  machine  in  common  or  a  progressive 
farmer  may  own  one  and  rent  it  out.  The  fol- 
lowing tables  give  the  horsepower  required 
to  operate  various  machines: 

FARM    MACHINERY 

Thresher    : 5  Hp. 

Cow   Milker \ 

Grindstone     \ 

Grist  Mill   15     to  30 

Refrigerator    5     to  25 

Pump    £  to  25 

HAY    PRESS 

14"xl8"  Bale  Chamber  ..   Capacity,  12  tons  per  day.  3  Hp. 


16"  x  18"  .  .  14 

17"x22"     "  "  ..  "         16 

14"  x  18"     "  "  . .  10 

16"  x  18"     "  "  . .  10 

17"x22"  ..  12 

Makes  a  bale  of  approximately  120  Ibs. 


4 

6  " 

2  " 

2  " 


104  ELECTEICITY 

FEED  GRINDER 

8"  large  or  small  make  . .  .  Capacity,     8  bu.  per  hr.  4    Hp. 

16"       "  ...  "36    "       "     "  10      " 

Machine  runs  at  75  r.  p.  m.  for  each  H.P. 

10"   Capacity,  15  bu.  per  hr.  6  Hp. 

10"   50    '  15      " 

HUSKER 

6  roll.  Capacity,  all  that  one  man  can  carry  ....  15  Hp. 

Two  6  roll,  300  to  400  bu.  per  hour 12  " 

4  roll.  175    "  250    "       "        "     8  " 

2  roll.  100    "  200    '  4  " 

COMBINATION    CHURN    AND    BUTTER-MAKER 

Capacity 

50  Gals 1  Hp. 

100   "   1   " 

200   "   2   " 

300      2   " 

PASTEURIZER 

600  Ibs 2  Hp. 

CREAM    SEPARATOR 

Capacity,     350  gal.  of  milk  per  hr ^  Hp. 

450     "      "       "        "     "       $      " 

650     "      "       "        "     "       J      " 

850  1 

1000  1 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  of  using  electric  motors  for  op- 

erating farm  machinery? 

2.  Is  it  safe  to  use  an  electric  motor  in  the  barn  ? 

3.  Where  can  electric  motors  be  applied? 

4.  What  are  the  different  kinds  of  machinery  to  be  operated 

on  the  farm? 

5.  Describe  the  group-drive  method. 

6.  Calculate  the  size  of  belt  for  a  motor  of  given  horsepower. 

7.  What  are  the  proper  speeds  of  single  and  double  belts? 

8.  Calculate  the  size  proper  of  pulleys  under  given  conditions. 

9.  What  benefits  are  to  be  derived  from  a  portable  motor? 


CHAPTER  V 
COST  OF  ELECTRIC  OPERATIONS 

IN  order  to  give  in  concrete  form,  an  estimate 
of  the  amount  of  electric  energy  necessary  on 
a  farm,  the  following  figures  from  a  100-acre 
farm  are  given.  It  is  assumed  that  two-thirds 
of  the  products  are  of  a  stalk  nature,  and  that 
the  live  stock  of  the  farm  includes  three  horses, 
ten  cows,  fifteen  swine,  etc.  The  figures  are  not 
fictitious,  but  are  an  average,  taken  from  the 
actual  experience  of  a  number  of  farms.  It 
is  also  assumed  that  electric  energy  for  power 
purposes  is  five  cents  per  kilowatt-hour,  which 
is  a  reasonable  figure  for  current  used  for 
power  only,  when  purchased  from  a  public-serv- 
ice corporation. 

Pumping  Water. — The  water-pump  is  the 
most  necessary  part  of  the  farm  equipment,  and 
in  nearly  every  case  is  the  first  thing  to  be 
operated  by  electrical  energy.  The  average 

105 


106 


ELECTEICITY 


water  consumed  on  a  100-acre  farm  is  as  fol- 
lows: for  the  house  per  head  per  day,  5  to  6 
gallons;  for  cattle  from  12  to  15  gallons  per 


Fig.   15.      Small  portable  motor. 

head ;  for  swine  or  sheep  1  to  2%  gallons.  For 
pumping  1,000  gallons  to  a  tank  elevated  35  ft., 
the  power  necessary  is  about  %  kwh.,  at  a  cost 
of  5  cents,  so  that  the  yearly  average  energy  for 
3  horses,  10  head  of  cattle,  and  15  swine  is 
about  $4. 

Threshing. — For  a  threshing  machine  of  the 
smaller  size,  capable  in  ten  hours  of  threshing, 


COST  OF  OPERATION  107 

cleaning  and  sacking,  ready  for  the  market,  80 
to  200  bushels,  3  to  5  electric  horsepower  are 
required.  For  machines  of  from  160  to  240 


Fig.   16.     Portable  motor  and  controller  operating  thresher. 

bushels  capacity  5  to  7  horsepower  are  neces- 
sary; and  for  300  to  800  bushels,  from  10  to 
20  horsepower  are  required. 

The  energy  required  for  the  various  products 
to  be  threshed  and  cleaned,  per  100  bushels  is, 
for  rye,  25;  wheat  22;  oats  19;  barley  21  kilo- 


108  ELECTRICITY 

watt-hours,  or  on  the  average,. 22  kwh.,  costing 
$1.10,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  1.1  cents  per 
bushel.  If  hay-baling  machines  are  attached  to 
the  thresher  from  4  to  6  additional  horsepower 
are  required. 

Fodder  Preparation. — Fodder  cutters,  vary- 
ing from  1  to  2  horsepower  consume  per  100  Ibs. 
of  fodder  1-80  kwh.  costing  1-16  cent  a  cut, 
and  as  10  head  of  cattle  consume  per  year  60,- 
000  Ibs.  of  cut  beet,  etc.,  the  total  yearly  cost 
for  the  energy  used  to  operate  the  fodder  ma- 
chines is  50  cents  per  head. 

One  of  the  by-products  of  cotton-seed  or 
linseed-oil  mills  is  sold  as  meal  or  as  cake,  and 
to  break  it  up  a  special  machine  is  needed. 
Such  a  machine  often  has  a  capacity  of  2000  to 
3000  Ibs.  per  hour.  The  average  food  per  head 
of  cattle  is  2  to  3  Ibs.  per  day,  which  amounts, 
for  10  head,  to  about  9000  Ibs.  per  year.  The 
cost  of  electric  energy  for  operating  this  ma- 
chine is  25  cents  a  year  per  head. 

As  the  cattle  are  fed  from  2  to  3  Ibs.  of 
crushed  grain  per  day  per  head,  and  as  there 
are  10  altogether  in  the  100-acre  supposition, 
a  motor-driven  grain-crusher  is  needed  capable 


COST  OF  OPEEATION  109 

of  crushing  some  9000  Ibs.  per  year.  This 
could  be  prepared  at  one  operation  by  a  large 
mill,  but  for  the  purpose  at  hand,  a  motor  vary- 
ing from  3  to  5  horsepower,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  mill  employed,  will  do  the  work  con- 


Fig.  17.     Butter  churn  operated  by  direct  geared  motor. 

veniently.  To  grind  100  Ibs.  costs  3  cents  for 
the  energy  consumed,  or  for  the  9000  Ibs.,  $2.70 
per  year. 

Cream  Separating  and  Churning. — For  run- 
ning the  cream  separator,  a  small  motor,  about 
%  hp.,  can  separate  300  quarts  of  milk  per 
hour,  consuming  .3  kwh.,  at  an  expense  of  1% 
cents.  As  the  average  production  for  10  cows 


110  ELECTRICITY 

is  about  30,000  qts.  per  year,  the  yearly  cost 
for  operating  the  separator  is  $1.50. 

A  churn  for  300  quarts  of  milk,  assuming 
average  conditions,  requires  from  %  to  y2  hp., 
as  also  does  the  butter-kneader,  and  the  cost 
is  negligible. 

Vacuum  Cleaners. — A  comparison  of  the 
costs  of  vacuum  cleaning  with  a  large  and  a 
small  machine  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  im- 
portance of  proper  selection  and  arrangement 
of  apparatus  so  that  the  overhead  charges  will 
not  prove  disadvantageous.  A  portable  vac- 
uum-cleaning machine  operated  by  a  ^-hp.-mo- 
tor,  costing  complete  $125,  is  used  by  one 
woman  for  260  hours  per  year,  cleaning  208,000 
square  feet  of  surface.  It  cleans  500  square 
feet  of  surface  in  30  minutes.  The  cost  in- 
cluding everything  is  $43.19  for  the  year.  A 
large  vacuum-cleaning  machine,  operated  by  a 
3-hp.-motor,  costing  $1365  and  capable  of  clean- 
ing 14  rooms,  or  2500  square  feet  of  surface, 
in  1  hour  and  53  minutes,  is  used  twice  weekly. 
It  carries  a  26.5-inch  vacuum,  which  is  piped 
throughout  the  house,  with  a  controlling  rhe- 
ostat on  every  floor.  The  vacuum  in  use  is 


COST  OF  OPERATION  111 

about  10.5  inches.  The  apparatus  is  used  156 
hours,  cleaning  260,000  square  feet  of  surface 
and  requiring  the  time  of  one  woman.  The  to- 
tal cost  is  $248  per  year,  or  9%  cents  per  100 
square  feet  of  surface  cleaned. 

In  the  small  machine  the  cost  of  cleaning  is 
but  2  cents  per  100  square  feet  of  surface 
cleaned.  This  fact  is  due  to  the  cost  of  installa- 
tion, the  larger  machine  costing  eleven  times 
as  much  as  the  smaller.  Thus  the  depreciation 
is  $136.50  per  year  and  interest  $81.90,  a  total 
of  $218.40,  compared  to  $20  for  the  smaller 
machine.  In  this  instance  the  depreciation  esti- 
mate is  quite  high  for  the  stationary  equipment 
of  the  large  machine,  since  a  considerable  part 
of  the  installation  consists  of  piping  which  will 
last  for  many  years. 

To  get  the  best  results  from  the  installation 
of  electrical  machines,  it  is  thus  necessary  to 
exercise  judgment  as  to  the  machines  and  the 
method  of  installation.  The  farmer  is  too  .apt 
to  overlook  the  overhead  charges  and  consider 
the  cost  as  simply  the  amount  of  the  running 
expense.  The  same  tendency  is  seen  in  many 
waterpower  plants,  both  large  and  small,  in 


112 


ELECTEICITY 


which  unnecessarily  large  turbines  and  equip- 
ment are  installed,  so  that  when  depreciation 


Fig.     18.     View    in    farm    laundry    showing    motor-operated    washing 
machine  and  centrifugal  dryer. 

and  interest  are  figured,  although  the  water 
costs  nothing,  the  power  costs  nlore  than  it 
would  if  taken  from  a  steam  plant  using  pur- 
chased fuel. 


COST  OF  OPERATION  113 

Washing  Machine. — A  washing-machine,  in- 
cluding wringer,  operated  by  a  %-hp.  motor, 
costing  complete  $165,  is  used  260  hours  a  year, 
or  some  five  hours  a  week.  As  other  work  can 
be  done  by  the  woman  operating  it,  her  time 
amounts  to  but  65  hours  during  the  year.  The 
machine  turns  out  three  washes  an  hour,  and 
the  total  expense  of  the  whole  780  washes  is 
$35.41.  This  includes  all  labour,  power  and 
every  expense,  including  overhead  charges,  and 
the  same  applies  to  the  figures  for  the  following 
machines. 

Horse  Groomer. — A  horse-groomer  costing 
$75,  operated  by  a  1-hp.  motor,  cleans  four 
horses  in  36  minutes.  It  is  used  328.5  hours 
during  the  year,  or  2190  groomings,  and  re- 
quires the  services  of  but  one  man.  The  cost 
amounts  to  $72.93  or  3%  cents  per  horse  per 
grooming. 

Cream  Separator  and  Churn. — A  cream-sep- 
arator having  a  capacity  of  1350  pounds  per 
hour  is  operated  by  a  1%-hp.  motor,  and  costs 
$350  complete.  It  is  used  183  hours  during  the 
year,  separating  237,900  pounds  of  milk  at  a 
cost  of  $88,  or  3.7  cents  per  100  pounds. 


114  ELECTRICITY 

A  butter  churn  having  a  volume  of  300  gal- 
lons and  a  capacity  of  100  gallons  per 
churning,  operated  by  a  2-hp.  motor  costs 
$118.50.  It  is  operated  88  hours  a  year, 
churning  15,000  pounds  of  butter  at  a  cost  of 
$36.60  or  two-tenths  of  a  cent  a  pound.  This 
includes  churning,  washing  and  working  the 
butter  ready  for  packing. 

Meat  Grinder  and  Stuffer. — The  plant  for 
making  sausage  consists  of  a  grinder,  a  mixer 
and  a  stuffer.  The  grinder  has  a  capacity  of 
750  pounds  an  hour  and  costs  $71.  It  is  op- 
erated by  a  4-hp.  motor  costing  $145,  a  total 
equipment-cost  of  $216.  It  is  used  80  hours 
a  year  and  grinds  60,000  pounds  of  sausage  at 
a  cost  of  $60,  with  one  operative,  a  cost  of  one- 
tenth  of  a  cent  a  pound. 

A  sausage-stuffer  complete,  costing  $229.56, 
stuffs  116  pounds  an  hour  with  two  operatives. 
It  is  used  517  hours  a  year,  stuffing  60,000 
pounds  at  a  cost  of  $226  or  37-100  cents  a  pound, 
which  with  the  grinding  makes  the  manufacture 
of  the  sausage  cost  slightly  less  than  half  a 
cent  a  pound,  ready  for  boxing. 

Hay  Hoist. — The  hay-hoisting  motor  is  one 


COST  OF  OPERATION  115 

of  10-hp.  and  costs  $163;  in  addition,  the  rig- 
ging costs  $105.  The  barn  is  300  feet  in  length 
and  the  hay  has  to  be  raised  25  feet  and  dis- 
tributed on  either  side  an  average  of  75  feet. 
A  load  of  2450  pounds  is  hoisted  and  placed 


Fig.    19.      Domestic    electrically    operated    ice-cream    freezer. 

in  position  in  13  minutes.  The  overhead  charge 
is  $42.88  a  year,  and  the  cost  of  placing  a  single 
load  of  one  ton  is  2%  cents  for  power  and  10 
cents  for  labour,  in  addition  to  the  overhead 
charge. 

Root  Cutter. — A  root-cutter  with  a  capacity  of 
6  tons  of  turnips  an  hour  costs  $26.30,  and  is 
operated  by  a  2-hp.  motor  costing  $86.  It  is 
used  52  hours  a  year,  principally  during  the 


116 


ELECTRICITY 


winter  months,  cutting  300  tons  of  beets  and 

turnips  at  a  cost  of  $35.94  or  11.9  cents  a  ton. 

Milling. — The  milling  plant  is  provided  with 

several  machines  operated  by  a  25-hp.  motor  in 


L 


Fig.   20.     Motor-operated  separator. 

another  building.  The  oat-rolling  machine  has 
a  capacity  of  111  bushels  of  rolled  oats  an  hour, 
is  used  mostly  during  the  winter  and  rolls  about 
40,000  bushels  of  oats  a  year.  The  labour  and 
power  cost  is  four-tenths  of  a  cent  a  bushel. 
A  grist  mill,  operated  by  the  25-hp.  motor  when 
the  oat-roller  is  not  in  use,  has  a  capacity  of 


COST  OF  OPERATION  117 

70  bushels  of  cracked  corn  an  hour.  It  uses  % 
more  power  than  the  oat-roller.  A  corn-crack- 
ing machine,  for  supplying  cracked  corn  to  the 
grist  mill  is  operated  by  the  same  motor,  and 
the  power  used  is  practically  the  same.  In  the 
same  plant  are  also  corn-shelling,  corn-grind- 
ing and  fine-corn-grinding  machines,  similarly 
operated  from  the  same  motor.  The  plant  is 
thus  very  complete,  and  grinds  some  16,000 
bushels  of  corn  a  year  in  addition  to  the  40,000 
bushels  of  rolled  oats.  Such  a  plant  is,  of 
course,  far  too  large  for  the  average  farm,  and 
is  large  enough  for  the  ordinary  requirements 
of  a  whole  countryside.  A  farmer  with  an  ad- 
vantageous power-site  could  readily  co-operate 
with  his  neighbours  in  the  establishment  of  such 
a  plant. 

Fodder  Cutter. — A  fodder-cutter,  having  a 
capacity  of  3  tons  an  hour  of  dry  fodder,  costs 
$128.10  and  is  operated  by  a  10-hp.  motor  cost- 
ing $118.50.  The  outfit  is  used  88.70  hours  a 
year,  and  will  cut  180  tons  of  fodder  at  a  cost 
of  $54.85,  with  one  operative,  a  ton  cost  of  30 
cents  a  ton., 


118  ELECTRICITY 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  does  it  cost  to  pump   1000  gallons  of  water  to  a 

height  of  35  feet,  assuming  that  one  kilowatt-hour  costs 
10  cents? 

2.  What  is  the  horsepower  required  to  thresh  80  to  200  bush- 

els of  wheat? 

3.  What  is  the  horsepower  required  for  fodder-cutters? 

4.  Does  not  the   capacity   of   the  motor   depend   on   the   size 

of  the  machine  to  be  operated? 

5.  Wliat  is  the  cost  of  operating  various  types  of  vacuum- 

cleaners,    assuming    5    cents    per   kwh.    as    the    cost    of 
current  ? 

6.  Calculate  the   cost  of  operating  milling  plants,   assuming 

5  cents  per  kwh.  as  the  cost  of  current. 


Electric  heating  pad. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MANUFACTURE  OF  FARM  BY- 
PRODUCTS 

THE  fanners  in  a  community  may  combine 
and  erect  a  co-operative  electric  plant  for  tak- 
ing the  surplus  of  vegetables,  fruit  and  other 
plants,  and  converting  it  into  various  forms  of 
by-products.  Where  the  central  station  is  op- 
erated by  steam  or  gas,  the  drying  of  leaves  of 
beets  and  potatoes  for  cattle  food,  and  the  dry- 
ing of  potatoes,  as  later  described,  may  be  con- 
veniently carried  on.  Many  of  the  products 
of  the  farm  which  are  now  allowed  to  go  to 
waste,  could  thus  be  turned  to  good  account, 
and  made  into  marketable  goods. 

Sugar. — Nearly  all  fruit  is  rich  in  sugar,  va- 
rying in  contents  from  5  to  10  per  cent.  Of  the 
common  fruits,  the  grape  yields  the  largest 
percentage  of  sugar.  The  normal  wine-grape 
contains  from  16  to  30  per  cent.,  with  an  aver- 
age of  20  per  cent.  The  two  most  important 

119 


120 


ELECTRICITY 


plants  for  yielding  sugar,  are  the  sugar-cane 
and  sugar-beet.     The  Louisiana  sugar-cane  con- 


Fig.   21.     Fruit  press   operated  by  stationary   motor   to   make  farm  by- 
products. 

tains  19  to  40  per  cent,  of  sugar,  while  sugar- 
beets  yield  from  12  to  18  per  cent,  of  sugar. 
Sorghum  contains  in  the  stalk,  at  the  time  the 
seed  is  matured  and  the  starch  hardened,  from 


FAKM  BY-PBODUCTS  121 

8  to  15  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and  Indian  corn  con- 
tains from  8  to  15  per  cent,  according  to  the  re- 
port of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Cider. — In  packing  fruit  for  market,  such  as 
apples,  grapes,  etc.,  only  sound  fruit  is  selected, 
that  which  is  in  any  way  bruised  or  in  the  first 
stages  of  decay,  being  thrown  out.  Instead  of 
allowing  this  refuse  to  go  to  waste,  it  may,  by 
the  use  of  electric-operated  presses,  or  stills,  be 
turned  into  cider  or  grape-juice.  The  pomace 
which  remains  may  be  used  as  fertiliser  for  the 
soil.  The  amount  of  electric  energy  needed  to 
operate  the  machine  necessary  for  such  pur- 
poses is  less  than  5  horsepower. 

Starch. — Farm  products  from  which  starch 
may  be  obtained  as  a,  by-product  are  the  potato 
and  cassava.  The  American  potato  contains  15 
to  20  per  cent,  of  starch,  which  in  turn  may  be 
converted  into  alcohol.  In  many  instances  po- 
tatoes are  accidentally  exposed  to  severe  cold 
frosts,  or  are  frozen  in  storage,  and  thus  ren- 
dered worthless.  In  Europe  potatoes  in  such 
condition  are  made  to  yield  a  considerable  per- 
centage of  alcohol  of  high  strength.  This 
especially  is  a  common  practice  in  Germany. 


122  ELECTEICITY 

Cattle  Food. — Eecent  German  reports,  in 
stating  facts  on  electrically  operated  farms, 
show  that  since  the  engineer  has  worked  in  har- 
mony with  the  farmer  a  number  of  plants  have 
been  installed  for  drying  the  leaves  of  the 
potato  and  the  beet,  to  be  used  as  food  for 
cattle,  because  they  are  high  in  protein  or  fat- 
producing  elements.  The  records  show  that  24 
million  tons  of  green  leaves  are  utilised  for  dry- 
ing yearly,  giving  about  6  million  tons  of  pre- 
served food  stuff  having  a  value  of  nearly 
$12,000,000.  The  annual  yield  of  potatoes  in 
Germany  amounts  to  some  50  million  tons; 
which  when  put  into  bins  for  storage  shrink  in 
value  about  10  per  cent.,  with  a  loss  of  approx- 
imately $25,000,000. 

By-Products  from  Potatoes. — In  these  days 
of  rising  values  of  all  meat  products  there  is  a 
demand  for  a  manufactured  product  which  will 
aid  materially  in  decreasing  the  cost  of  cattle 
raising,  and  this  is  particularly  true  where 
stock  raisers  are  largely  dependent  upon  fod- 
der transported  from  a  distance. 

The  potato  crop  of  1912  was  the  greatest  in 
the  history  of  the  United  States,  aggregating 


FAEM  BY-PEODUCTS  123 

401,000,000  bushels  for  white  potatoes   alone, 
It  is  estimated  that  approximately  36,000,000 


Fig.    22.     Grist    mill    machinery    on    a    New   York   farm,    operated   by 
portable   motor. 

bushels  of  that  year's  crop  were  furnished  by 
Michigan,  28,000,000  bushels  by  Minnesota  and 
32,000,000  by  Wisconsin. 


124  ELECTEICITY 

Within  the  last  ten  years  numerous  plants 
have  been  installed  throughout  Germany  to 
utilise  a  vast  amount  of  potatoes  for  making 
potato  flakes,  potato  cakes,  dried  potatoes  and 
potato  flour.  In  1901,  when  the  crop  of  the 
country  reached  the  enormous  total  of  53,682,- 
010  short  tons,  efforts  were  made  to  discover 
practical  and  economical  methods  of  preserving 
potatoes  so  that  the  surplus  could  be  stored  and 
utilised  in  supplying  future  demands.  Prizes 
were  offered  and  a  number  of  processes  were 
submitted,  in  the  more  important  of  which  the 
potatoes  are  dried  by  steam,  forming  what  are 
called  "kartoffelflocken,"  or  potato  flakes, 
which  can  be  used  for  feeding  stock,  for  dis- 
tilling alcohol,  for  making  starch,  and  for  other 
purposes  for  which  potatoes  are  used,  or  they 
can  be  ground  and  bolted  for  human  consump- 
tion. 

According  to  the  II.  S.  Daily  Consular  Ee- 
port,  there  are  436  plants  established  in  Ger- 
many for  drying  potatoes  with  an  estimated 
production  annually  of  110,230  to  165,345  short 
tons,  or  3,674,000  to  5,511,500  bushels.  Of  the 
above  plants,  350  are  for  the  production  of 


FAEM  BY-PEODUCTS  125 

potato  flakes,  and  in  86  plants  the  potatoes  are 
cut  in  dice  or  slices  and  then  dried.  Of  the 
327  plants  in  operation  during  the  season  of 
1910-11,  besides  potatoes  13  dried  grain,  11 
dried  the  leaves  of  sugar-beets,  and  20  dried 
other  agricultural  products;  181  of  the  plants 
worked  day-and-night  shifts  of  12  hours  each. 
The  417,641  tons  of  potatoes  used  by  the  327 
drying  plants  in  1910-11  equalled  15,345,659 
bushels  of  60  pounds  each.  The  following  is  a 
brief  description  of  some  of  the  principal  sys- 
tems in  operation  in  Germany  and  which  could 
advantageously  be  introduced  into  the  United 
States  and  Canada. 

Potato  Flakes. — In  one  process  for  the  pro- 
duction of  flakes,  the  raw  potatoes  are  washed 
in  such  a  washing  machine  as  is  commonly  used 
in  distilleries  or  starch  factories,  and  then  con- 
veyed by  an  elevator  to  a  steamer  erected  over 
the  drying  apparatus,  where  they  are  cooked  by 
means  of  low  pressure  steam,  as  if  the  potatoes 
were  to  be  used  for  feeding  stock.  The  drying 
apparatus  proper  consists  of  two  smooth,  hol- 
low, cast-iron  revolving  drums,  about  4  feet 
long  and  2  feet  in  diameter,  each  with  a  clear- 


126  ELECTRICITY 

ance  of  about  0.039  inch.  The  drums  are  sup- 
ported upon  a  cast-iron  framework,  on  the  top 
of  which  there  is  an  iron  hopper  fitted  at  the 
bottom  with  emasculators,  or  crushers.  The 
drums  are  heated  by  steam  of  5.5  to  6  atmos- 
pheres led  through  a  pipe  passing  through  their 
axes.  The  interior  of  the  drums  are  ridged 
longitudinally.  Condensed  water  is  taken  from 
the  drums  by  two  small  pipes  and  returned  to 
the  boilers. 

The  potatoes  after  being  steamed  are  allowed 
to  fall  by  gravity  into  the  hoppers  and  through 
the  crushers,  where  they  are  reduced  to  pulp, 
and  in  this  shape  are  forced  on  to  the  drying 
drums  which  turn  in  opposite  directions  at  five 
revolutions  a  minute.  The  heat  drives  off  the 
moisture  of  the  potato  pulp,  leaving  a  firm  mass 
that  is  scraped  off  by  means  of  knives  set  par- 
allel to  the  main  axes  of  the  drums.  The  dried 
mass  falls  into  a  spiral  transporter  fitted  with 
revolving  arms,  where  it  is  broken  into  flakes 
and  conveyed  to  the  packing  room. 

In  another  system  for  producing  potato  flakes 
the  potatoes  are  washed,  then  thoroughly 
steamed,  after  which  they  are  passed  between 


FAEM  BY-PEODUCTS  127 

two  rollers  heated  to  284°  F. ;  the  thoroughly 
crushed  and  dried  substance  in  the  shape  of 
small  flakes  is  then  removed  from  the  rollers  by 
stationary  knife  blades  and  passed  through  a 
cooling  funnel,  after  which  it  is  ready  for  use 
or  storing.  A  third  system  consists  of  washing 
potatoes,  then  after  crushing  them  into  a  cold 
pulp,  the  matter  is  passed  into  a  gas  or  steam- 
heated  drum  for  drying  purposes;  when  thor- 
oughly dry  it  is  spread  for  cooling  and  then 
ground  into  flour. 

There  are  many  other  systems  but  the  above 
will  suffice  to  show  the  fundamental  principles  for 
manufacturing  potato  flakes  and  potato  flour. 

The  price  of  potato  flakes  varies  from  14  to  16 
pfennigs  (3.3  to  3.8  cents)  per  kilo  (2.2  pounds). 
The  estimated  cost  of  the  production  of  the 
flakes  is  6.30  marks  ($1.50)  per  50  kilos  (110.2 
pounds). 

Potato  Flour. — In  the  production  of  potato 
flour  the  flakes  are  ground  and  bolted.  There 
are  but  few  concerns  that  manufacture  the  flour, 
each  having  its  own  process.  The  flour  is  a  yel- 
lowish-white product,  rich  in  carbohydrates.  Ac- 
cording to  experiments  made  by  the  "Institut 


128  ELECTRICITY 

fiir  Garungs-Gewerbe "  (Institute  for  the  Fer- 
mentation Industry)  in  Berlin,  the  principal 
constituents  of  the  flour  are:  "Water,  10.69 
per  cent.;  protein,  6.59  per  cent.;  fatty  sub- 


Fig.    23.     Electric-operated    grain    mill    on    a    large    farm.     A    single 
motor  drives  a  group  of  machines. 

stances,  0.23  per  cent. ;  and  ashes,  2.58  per  cent. 
This  flour  is  used  principally  by  bakers  for  add- 
ing to  rye  and  wheat  flour  in  making  bread. 
The  proportion  for  wheat  bread  is  5  to  10  per 
cent,  of  the  ground  potato  flour,  and  for  rye 
bread  the  amount  can  be  increased  to  15  per 
cent.  It  is  claimed  that  the  addition  of  potato 
flour  to  rye  or  wheat  flour  gives  bread  a  good 
flavour,  makes  it  more  digestible,  and  keeps  it 
fresh  for  a  comparatively  long  time.  This  flour 


FARM  BY-PEODUCTS  129 

is  also  used  to  a  slight  extent  in  thickening 
soups  and  sauces.  It  is  known  to  the  trade  as 
"Walzmehl"  "Kartoffel  Walzmehl,"  "Patent 
Walzmehl"  and  ' '  Fiddichower  Walzmehl." 
The  prices  vary  according  to  the  potato  crop 
and  the  quality,  and  range  from  $4.76  to  $7.14 
per  100  kilos  (220.46  pounds). 

Miscellaneous  By-Products. — There  are  many 
vegetables  and  plants  grown  on  the  farm  which 
can  be  converted  into  one  form  of  by-product 
or  another,  and  especially  into  alcohol.  There 
is  over  twenty  per  cent,  of  starch  in  the  South 
Carolina  sweet  potato,  for  example,  and  as  high 
as  2600  Ibs.  of  starch  per  acre  has  been  pro- 
duced. The  average  yield  of  sweet  potatoes 
per  acre  is  of  course  much  less  than  in  the 
South  Carolina  case,  where  heavy  fertilisation 
was  practised.  On  plots  to  which  fertiliser  was 
not  added,  the  yield  was  about  8000  Ibs.  of  sweet 
potatoes  an  acre,  yielding  in  round  numbers, 
about  1900  Ibs.  of  starch.  The  quantity  of 
sugar  in  the  8000  Ibs.  was  about  350  Ibs.,  which 
makes  about  1250  Ibs.  of  fermentable  matter. 
This  can  be  turned  into  industrial  alcohol  yield- 
ing about  160  gallons  of  95  per  cent,  proof. 


130 


ELECTEICITY 


QUESTIONS 


1.  What  by-products  are  to  be  obtained  on  the  farm  by  means 

of  electric  power? 

2.  What  was  the  potato  crop  of  the  United  States  in  1912? 

3.  What  are  the  by-products  from  potatoes? 

4.  What  are  potato  flakes? 

5.  What  is  potato  flour? 

6.  What  are  the  principal  sources  of  industrial  alcohol? 

7.  What  is  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  various  fruits? 

8.  What  is  understood  by  "the  co-operative  system"  in  con- 

nection with  farm  by-products? 


Electric  stove. 


CHAPTER  VII 
PRESERVATION  OF  FAEM  PRODUCTS 

NEARLY  every  farmer  can  make  use  of  a  cold- 
storage  plant,  to  keep  meat  in  proper  condition, 
and  to  prevent  butter,  milk,  eggs  and  other  per- 
ishable goods  from  spoiling.  The  greatest 
benefit  of  such  cold  storage  for  the  farmer  lies 
in  the  fact  that  he  is  not  forced  to  ship  his 
goods  immediately  to  market,  for  he  can  pre- 
serve them  until  the  market  prices  advance. 
In  many  cases,  especially  with  fruit,  the  farmer 
is  forced  to  let  his  product  lie  on  the  ground 
and  rot,  because  the  price  offered  does  not  pay 
the  expenses  of  picking,  packing  and  shipping 
his  goods  to  the  commission  merchants.  A 
cold-storage  plant  would  enable  him  to  pick 
fruit  in  the  proper  season,  and  keep  it  until  the 
price  becomes  profitable. 

Cold  Storage  of  Fruit. — Some  kinds  of  fruit 
are  better  adapted  to  storing  in  cold  tempera- 

131 


132 


ELECTRICITY 


tures  than  others,  and  are  in  active  demand 
through  a  longer  season.     Winter  apples  and 


Fig.    24.     Motor-operated    ammonia    pumps    (chain    connected)    in    ice- 
making  plant  on  a  New  York  farm. 

pears  can  be  kept  in  good  condition  for  long 
periods  in  cold  storage,  and  a  large  part  of  the 
late  apple  and  pear  crops  is  now  so  held  annu- 
ally to  insure  a  supply  of  these  fruits  in  good 


PEESEKVATION  OF  PEODUCTS  133 

condition  throughout  the  winter  and  spring 
months.  On  the  other  hand,  berries  and  other 
small  fruits  are  not  stored  to  nearly  so  great 
an  extent,  on  account  of  their  highly  perishable 
nature. 

The  storage  of  small  fruits  is  a  problem 
somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  more  du- 
rable fruits.  Winter  apples  and  pears  are 
usually  too  hard  and  immature  when  stored  to 
be  fit  for  immediate  consumption.  Cold  stor- 
age insures  the  safe  keeping  of  these  fruits,  and 
under  proper  management  brings  out  their  fin- 
est flavour  and  quality.  The  fruits  ripen 
slowly  in  the  low  temperature  of  the  storage 
house,  acids  diminish,  the  starch  changes  to 
sugar  if  the  transformation  is  not  already  com- 
pleted when  the  fruit  is  stored,  and  the  fine 
flavour  and  aroma  of  the  fruit  are  developed. 

Small  fruits  held  in  cold  storage  are  placed 
there  to  protect  them  temporarily  from  decay 
until  they  can  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  con- 
sumer. Shipments  of  small  fruits  are  fre- 
quently delayed  in  transit  and  reach  their 
destination  too  late  for  the  early  morning  mar- 
ket. There  is  often  little  opportunity  of  dis- 


134  ELECTEICITY 

posing  of  them  until  the  following  morning,  or 
in  case  of  the  late  arrival  coming  on  Saturday 
the  fruit  can  not  be  sold  until  the  following 
Monday  morning.  Without  artificial  refrigera- 
tion, the  fruit  would  deteriorate  rapidly,  and  in 


Fig.  25.  Electric-operated  refrigerating  plant  for  farms,  butchers,  res- 
taurants, etc.  The  surrounding  brine  tanks  will  keep  the  boxes 
cold  during  the  time  the  machine  is  not  running. 


many  cases  would  become  worthless  before  it 
could  be  sold.  Advantage  is  often  taken  of  an 
overstocked  market  for  the  cold  storage  of  con- 
siderable quantities  of  small  fruits  when  there 
is  a  reasonable  prospect  of  a  stronger  demand 
and  better  prices  within  two  or  three  days. 

A  Combination  Plant. — Where  the  steam-elec- 
tric plant  is  of  considerable  size,  supplying  a 


PEESEEVATION  OF  PBODUCTS  135 

number  of  farms  with  electric  energy,  it  is  an 
economical  proposition  to  utilise  the  exhaust 
steam  for  making  ice.  For  instance  in  a  small 
plant  of  100-horsepower  operating  12  hours  per 
day,  with  the  steam  consumption  of  the  engines 
at  20  Ibs.  per  horsepower-hour,  some  6  tons  of 
ice  daily  can  be  made  as  a  by-product  and  dis- 
tributed among  the  farmers  supplied  with  elec- 
tricity. In  the  installation  of  an  apparatus 
using  the  exhaust  steam  for  ice-making,  the 
services  of  a  competent  engineer  in  the  plan- 
ning and  installation  is  a  wise  investment,  for 
considerable  experience  is  necessary  to  get  all 
the  component  parts  fitted  so  that  a  harmonious 
and  economical  operation  results.  Once  in- 
stalled, the  apparatus  can  be  attended  to  as 
easily  as  any  farm  machinery,  as  it  does  not 
require  constant  attention. 

Refrigeration  Plants. — People  are  becoming 
more  and  more  alive  to  the  superiority  of  refrig- 
erating machines,  popularly  called  "ice  ma- 
chines, "  for  producing  the  cooling  effects  for 
which  natural  ice  is  now  employed.  Such  a 
machine  can  be  used  to  make  ice,  which  will  be 
more  solid  and  will  last  longer  than  the  natural 


136 


ELECTRICITY 


product.  It  can  and  should  be  made  from  wa- 
ter of  known  purity,  so  as  to  make  it  abso- 
lutely hygienic.  More  often,  however,  it  is 
simpler  and  more  economical  to  let  the  machine 
itself  do  the  cooling  that  ice  was  formerly  em- 


CURRENT  SUPPL- 


Fig.    26. 


Diagram    of    general    arrangement    of    complete    refrigerating 
system. 


ployed  to  do,  equipping  it,  if  desired,  with  aux- 
iliary appliances  to  make  ice  in  small  quantities, 
as  for  drinking  water  or  for  making  ice-cream. 
By  mechanical  refrigeration,  boxes  and  chilling- 
rooms  are  given  a  dry,  clean  coldness  that,  even 
when  above  the  freezing  point,  preserves  their 
perishable  contents  much  longer  than  is  possi- 
ble with  ice  placed  in  an  overhead  bunker  or 


PEESEEVATION  OF  PEODUCTS  137 

used  in  any  other  manner.  Each  compartment 
is  given  the  temperature  especially  adapted  to 
its  particular  contents.  And  if  freezing  tem- 
peratures are  desired  for  the  long  storage  of 
butter,  poultry,  fruit  and  other  articles,  a  re- 
frigerating machine  is  a  practical  medium. 

Sometimes  the  machine  is  made  to  chill  brine, 
which  is  then  pumped  into  lines  of  piping,  ar- 
ranged along  the  top  or  sides  of  the  room  to 
be  cooled — and  this  is  known  as  the  "brine  sys- 
tem. "  A  simpler  method,  and  usually  the 
preferable,  is  the  "direct  expansion  system," 
in  which  anhydrous  liquid  ammonia  passes  di- 
rectly into  the  pipe  lines,  called  "expansion 
coils,"  and  as  it  vaporises  takes  up  the  heat 
from  the  chilling  room,  fresh-water  tank,  or 
other  place  that  is  to  be  kept  cold.  In  either 
system,  where  a  room  is  to  be  refrigerated,  the 
piping  is  placed  behind  non-conducting  shields, 
so  as  to  insure  a  proper  circulation  of  the  cold 
air. 

Principle  of  Refrigeration. — This  principle 
of  physics,  that  the  vaporising  of  a  liquid  will 
take  heat  from  surrounding  objects,  is  at  the 
basis  of  nearly  all  of  the  present-day  commer- 


138  ELECTRICITY 

cial  machines,  and,  for  practical  purposes,  an- 
hydrous ammonia,  usually  designated  simply  as 
"ammonia,"  is  the  best  refrigerating  agent. 
(This  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the  common 
aqua  ammonia,  which  is  ammonia  gas  in  solu- 
tion with  water;  if,  however,  the  gas  is  driven 
off  by  heating  the  solution  and  is  then  cooled 
under  sufficient  pressure,  anhydrous  liquid  am- 
monia is  obtained).  If  one  pound  of  anhydrous 
liquid  ammonia  is  allowed  to  pass  from  a  small 
orifice  in  the  vessel  containing  it  into  pipe  lines, 
where  it  expands  to  a  gas,  it  will  in  vaporising 
take  up  enough  heat  through  the  walls  of  the 
piping  to  lower  the  temperature  of  rather  more 
than  500  Ibs.  of  water  one  degree,  or  in  other 
words  to  absorb  over  500  B.  T.  U.  But  after 
having  done  this  work,  the  ammonia,  now  in  a 
gaseous  form,  has  exhausted  its  capacity  of 
absorbing  heat  until  it  has  again  been  made 
dense  by  compression,  and  has  been  cooled  by 
passing  through  pipes  in  contact  with  flowing 
water,  such  as  is  drawn  from  street  mains,  so 
as  to  bring  it  back  to  liquid  form. 

Where    electricity   is    available    on   a   coun- 
try    estate,     an     electric    motor    is     readily 


PEESEEVATION  OF  PEODUCTS  139 

applicable  to  a  refrigerating  plant,  which 
is  nothing  more  than  an  ammonia  com- 
pressor, generating  a  cold  temperature  as  low 
as  is  necessary.  Such  a  generating  set  needs 


Fig.   27.     Electric  refrigerator. 

to  operate  only  for  a  few  hours,  twice  a  day, 
to  keep  a  constant  temperature  in  the  cold- 
storage  room.  When  the  temperature  rises, 
the  machine  automatically  starts  and  operates 
until  the  set  temperature  is  reached,  when  it 
automatically  stops.  The  greatest  variation  in 
temperature  is  thus  not  more  than  five  degrees. 
The  advantage  of  this  refrigerating  system  is, 


140  ELECTEICITY 

that  all  the  moisture  in  the  air  collects  on  the 
pipes  as  frost,  leaving  the  air  practically  dry, 
while,  with  the  use  of  ice,  the  air  is  more  or 
less  moist,  and  such  an  air  is  not  best  for 
keeping  some  kinds  of  fruit  and  vegetables  for 
a  considerable  length  of  time. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  Why  is  cold  storage  of  advantage  to  the  farmer? 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  of  using  a  refrigeration  plant 

instead  of  solid  ice  in  preserving  farm  products? 

3.  What  are  the  principles  of  refrigeration? 

4.  How  may  the  refrigeration  plant  be  operated  automatic- 

ally? 


Parts  of  combination  electric  cooker. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
TRANSPORTATION  OF  FAEM  PRODUCTS 

THE  problem  of  transportation  on  a  farm  of 
any  size  is  a  factor  of  great  importance,  espe- 
cially in  unsettled  weather,  when  the  products 
have  to  be  hurried  under  cover.  For  thousands 
of  years  transportation  has  been  dependent  on 
the  physical  exertion  of  man  or  some  animal, 
but  to-day  machinery  is  ready  to  do  the  work, 
and  the  self-propelled  electric  vehicle  has  filled 
the  gap. 

Methods. — In  considering  any  method  of 
transportation,  there  are  three  things  to  be 
considered:  The  road,  the  load  and  the  vehicle. 
In  transportation  other  than  on  tracks,  the  road 
must  be  accepted  as  it  exists.  In  commercial 
work  the  load  must  be  accepted  as  it  is  received 
and  must  be  delivered  as  ordered.  These  two 
factors  of  transportation  are  the  same,  no  mat- 
ter what  method  is  employed.  Hills,  bad  roads, 

141 


142  ELECTEICITY 

frequent  stops  and  starts,  long  routes  or  heavy 
loads,  are  equal  in  the  demand  made  on  animals 
or  machines  of  any  kind.  The  third  factor,  the 


Fig.  28.  A  3i  ton  electric  truck  carrying  617  bundles  of  wheat. 
Electric  vehicles  carry  three  times  the  load  of  horse-drawn  vehicles 
and  dispense  with  one  farm  hand. 


vehicle,  is  the  only  one  with  which  the  solution 
of  transportation  problems  can  be  made  easier. 
Just  as  the  electric  street  car  has  solved  the 
problems  for  passenger  transportation  in  cities, 
so  has  the  electrically  driven  wagon  opened 


TBANSPOKTATION  143 

the  way  to  a  simple  freight  and  delivery  sys- 
tem. 

The  electric  vehicle  for  trucking  and  delivery 
is  purely  a  mechanical  proposition.  It  is  a  ma- 
chine. Like  other  machines,  it  can  be  built  to 
do  a  given  amount  of  work  in  a  definite  time 
at  a  certain  cost  under  any  known  conditions. 
The  safely  carried  load  in  pounds  or  tons  is 
the  basis  of  its  mechanical  design  and  construc- 
tion. The  specified  speed  with  full  load  on  a 
hard  level  determines  how  much  power  will  be 
required.  The  specified  duration  of  continuous 
operation  at  full  load  on  a  hard  level  determines 
the  amount  of  energy  that  must  be  stored  in 
its  battery  at  one  time,  and  fixes  the  size  of  the 
battery.  The  power  and  speed  required  deter- 
mine the  size  of  the  motor  and  the  gear  ratios, 
while  the  total  weight  affects  the  tire  design. 

Cost. — Accurate  engineering  can  be  applied 
to  the  problems  of  transportation  with  greater 
satisfaction  with  electric  vehicles  than  with  any 
other  type.  Electrical  measuring  instruments 
reveal,  and  record  if  necessary,  the  condition 
and  performance  of  storage  batteries  and  elec- 
tric motors.  The  cost  of  producing  electricity 


144  ELECTEICITY 

is  a  known  quantity,  and  the  amount  necessary 
to  charge  a  battery  is  measurable.  The  amount 
of  electricity  delivered  to  an  electric  motor  by 
the  battery  is  a  known  quantity,  or  can  be  meas- 
ured. The  performance  of  an  electric  motor  is 
accurately  specified  for  any  conditions.  Its  ef- 
ficiency is  easily  determined. 

The  work  of  moving  a  ton  a  mile  per  hour 
on  a  hard  level  road  is  expended  in  starting  it 
from  rest  and  in  overcoming  the  resistance  of 
the  road,  the  tires,  the  bearings,  the  electrical 
circuits  and  the  air.  If  the  road  is  not  hard 
or  not  level  of  course  more  work  will  be  re- 
quired to  overcome  its  resistance  or  to  move  the 
load  up  a  grade.  If  it  is  necessary  to  start 
often  from  rest  more  work  must  be  done  than 
for  continuous  motion. 

The  Question  of  Value. — The  cost  of  doing 
this  work  depends  on  the  amount  of  energy  ex- 
pended and  the  cost  per  unit  of  power. 

An  electric  vehicle  cannot  be  used  profitably 
where  it  is  not  needed.  Where  the  work  to  be 
done  is  less  than  half  the  ability  of  the  machine, 
proper  value  may  not  be  derived  from  the  in- 
vestment. There  are  also  localities  where  op- 


TRANSPORTATION  145 

erating  conditions  prevent  a  satisfactory  return 
for  investment.  But  in  thousands  of  cases  the 
owner  of  a  few  horse-drawn  delivery  wagons, 
a  couple  of  trucks  or  two  or  three  heavy  drays, 
can  profit  at  once  by  replacing  them  with  one 
or  more  electric  vehicles.  His  work  will  be 
done  quicker,  his  stable  may  be  smaller  and  his 
expense  will  be  much  less  for  a  given  service. 
Where  a  large  number  of  vehicles  are  used  the 
advantage  of  electricity  becomes  more  apparent 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  service  is  improved 
still  more. 

An  example  of  the  utilisation  of  electric 
trucks  for  rural  transportation  purposes  may 
be  cited — that  of  the  nursery  of  the  Brown 
Brothers,  about  four  miles  from. the  business 
section  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.  During  the  ship- 
ping season,  the  firm  employs  a  3%-ton  electric 
truck  for  delivering  trees  and  shrubs  to  th£ 
depot;  the  truck  returning  with  fertilisers  and 
supplies  for  the  nursery.  During  the  harvest 
season,  the  same  truck  is  utilised  in  harvesting 
the  hay  and  wheat.  In  one  of  the  accompany- 
ing illustrations  the  truck  is  shown  with  a  load 
of  617  bundles  of  wheat,  which  after  being 


146 


ELECTRICITY 


Fig.   29.     Electric  motor  with  controller  operating  hay  hoist  on  a  New 
York  farm. 

threshed  yielded  45  bushels.     The  regular  two- 
horse  load  is  260  bundles.    Where  the  time-ele- 


TRANSPORTATION  147 

ment  in  getting  the  wheat  to  the  thresher,  due 
to  variable  conditions  of  the  weather,  is  so  im- 
portant, one  can  readily  perceive  how  progress- 
ive farmers  may  find  it  profitable  to  avail 
themselves  of  modern  appliances. 

The  price  paid  for  an  electric  vehicle  does 
not  necessarily  determine  its  full  value  to  the 
owner,  for  this  value'  depends  on  the  use  to 
which  it  will  be  subjected,  and,  of  course,  upon 
its  constructive  features.  There  are  many 
farmers  who  desire  a  pleasure  vehicle,  and  who 
do  not  have  sufficient  produce  to  handle  to  war- 
rant the  purchase  of  an  electric  truck  for  trans- 
portation purposes  only.  They  should  choose 
a  type  which  is  suitable  both  for  light  trucking 
and  pleasure.  To  suit  country-road  conditions, 
such  a  vehicle  should  have  high  wheels  and 
solid  rubber  tires. 

Industrial  Railroads. — A  more  extensive  sys- 
tem of  transportation  for  farms  of  more  than 
ordinary  size,  is  an  industrial  railway,  consist- 
ing in  essential  features  of  a  narrow-gauge 
track,  a  copper  electrical  conductor  strung  some 
12  feet  above  the  tracks,  and  an  electric  loco- 
motive. The  electric  current  is  sent  to  the  lo- 


148 


ELECTEICITY 


comotive  over  the  copper  wire,  and  returned 
to  the  generator  through  the  tracks.  The  elec- 
tric locomotive  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  ordi- 


Fig.    30.     Electric   railway   for   handling   farm   products   on   a   farm   in 
Germany. 

nary  trolley  car,  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  is 
capable  of  hauling  the  number  of  cars  suited 
to  its  size. 

The  accompanying  illustration  shows  a  transportation  system 
which  once  employed  horses  to  haul  the  cars  over  the  rails. 
Within  three  years  the  total  yearly  haulage  of  the  new  electric 
system  has  increased  many  fold.  The  ease  with  which  farm 
products  can  be  loaded,  transported  and  unloaded  in  the  places 
desired  is  obvious.  In  most  instances  the  tracks  can  be  laid 
into  the  storehouse  or  barn;  a  train-load  of  products  can  be 


TRANSPORTATION"  149 

brought  right  in,  and  the  locomotive  sent  back  with  empty 
cars  for  another  load. 

Electric  Hoists. — For  loading  and  unloading 
the  farm  products  at  the  barn,  small  motor- 
operated  hoists  are  used  to  lessen  the  labour. 
With  a  single  lift,  a  whole  load  of  hay,  wheat  or 
straw,  can  be  taken  from  the  wagon  and  placed 
in  the  loft.  With  manual  labour,  usually  three 
to  four  men  are  often  required  to  unload  a  load 
of  hay,  while  with  an  electric  hoist,  one  man 
can  do  the  same  work,  in  a  fraction  of  the 
time.  The  cost  for  electric  energy  is  almost 
negligible,  when  compared  with  the  number  of 
hands  required  for  manual  labour. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  may  the  problems  of  transportation  of  farm  products 

be  solved  by  means  of  electric  truckage? 

2.  What  are  the  advantages  of  electric  vehicles? 

3.  Would  electric  haulage  by  means  of  narrow-gauge  tracks 

and  locomotives  be  of  advantage  on  large  farms? 

4.  What   may  be  accomplished   with  electric  hoists   for  un- 

loading farm  products? 


CHAPTER  IX 
ELECTEIC  PLOUGHING 

PLOUGHING  is  the  father  of  industries,  the  in- 
dispensable primary  operation  upon  which  civ- 
ilisation has  depended  from  the  earliest  ages, 
and  the  plough  is  thus  the  most  useful  and  neces- 
sary implement  which  has  ever  been  designed 
by  mankind  for  his  own  advancement.  Without 
the  plough  agriculture  is  impossible,  and  with- 
out agriculture  no  industry  can  exist.  Yet  in 
spite  of  all  the  progress  which  has  been  made 
in  mechanical  arts,  and  in  the  sciences,  the 
plough  of  to-day  remains  the  same  in  principle 
as  the  plough  of  dozens  of  centuries  ago.  The 
furrow  is  still  turned  in  the  old  way,  and  mod- 
ern science  has  added  nothing  in  principle  to 
the  plough  except  different  means  of  drawing 
it  across  the  field. 

Farmers  in  Germany,  where  during  the  past 
15  years  the  steam  plough  has  been  used  to 
a  great  extent,  have  made  increasing  use  of 

150 


ELECTEIC  PLOUGHING-  151 

the  electrically  operated  plough,  which  is  now 
far  beyond  the  experimental  stage,  and  is  in 
many  respects  superior  to  that  drawn  by  steam 
or  gasoline  tractors,  saving  both  time  and 
money. 

The  Single-Motor  Plough. — There  are  in 
Germany  in  successful  operation,  two  different 
systems,  known  as  the  single-motor  and  double- 
motor  systems.  In  both  methods  a  plough  is 
pulled  across  a  field  by  means  of  a  cable  wound 
on  a  drum.  The  single-motor  system  utilises 
one  motor-wagon  and  a  so-called  anchor-wagon, 
while  the  double-motor  system  has  two  motor- 
wagons.  In  the  case  of  the  single  motor  an 
endless  cable  runs  around  the  drum  of  the  mo- 
tor-wagon which  is  placed  on  one  side  of  the 
field,  and  thence  around  the  sheave  of  the 
anchor-wagon  on  the  other  side  of  the  field. 
The  plough  is  pulled  back  and  forth  between 
the  two  wagons,  one  man  operating  the  motor 
and  another  the  plough. 

After  the  plough  has  covered  a  course  across 
the  field,  a  man  tips  the  plough  so  that  another 
set  of  ploughshares  is  ready  to  turn  furrows 
in  the  opposite  direction.  The  motion  of  the 


152 


ELECTEICITY 


drum  on  the  motor-wagon  is  reversed  and  the 
plough  is  pulled  back  across  the  field.  By  a 
certain  device  on  each  wagon,  both  the  motor- 
wagon  and  the  anchor-wagon  advance  after  the 


Fig.  31.      Motor  wagon  of  single-motor  plough  system. 

plough  has  traversed  the  field  in  one  direction, 
just  enough  to  start  the  plough  on  a  new  set 
of  furrows.  As  it  is  necessary  that  the  anchor- 
wagon  remain  in  a  fixed  position  while  the 
plough  is  travelling,  the  rims  of  its  wheels  are 
provided  with  large  flanges,  which,  by  the  pull 
of  the  plough  cable,  are  forced  into  the  ground, 
holding  it  firmly  in  place.  (See  Fig.  32). 


ELECTRIC  PLOUGHING  153 

The  Double-Motor  Plough. — The  two-motor 
plough  system  consists  of  two  motor-wagons, 
and  the  plough  is  pulled  back  and  forth  between 
them  by  a  single  cable.  As  seen  in  the  illustra- 
tion (Fig.  33),  the  plough  and  each  wagon  has 
an  operator,  so  that  three  men  are  necessary  to 
this  system.  The  wheels  of  the  motor-wagon 
have  broad  rims  to  give  a  large  bearing,  thus 
aiding  the  machine  to  travel  over  soft  ground. 
The  rims  of  one  pair  of  wheels  are  provided 
with  ribs  so  that  locomotion  over  any  kind  of 
ground  is  readily  accomplished,  while  the  rims 
of  the  other  pair  of  wheels  are  provided,  as  in 
the  single-motor  plough,  with  large  flanges  set 
at  right  angles  to  the  pull  of  the  plough-cable. 
This  arrangement  gives  an  anchorage  when  the 
cable  becomes  taut. 

The  plough  is  so  designed  that  it  can  turn 
furrows  in  both  directions.  When  it  has 
reached  the  limit  of  travel  in  one  direction,  it 
is  tilted  in  the  reverse  and  is  ready  to  plough 
on  the  return  travel.  One  set  of  ploughshares 
is  always  in  the  ground.  By  equipping  the 
plough  with  a  number  of  shares,  a  number  of 
furrows  may  be  turned  at  the  same  time. 


154  ELECTEICITY 

The  motor-wagon  is  provided  with  a  reel  of 
cable  which  is  paid  out  as  the  machine  advances. 
One  end  of  the  cable  is  plugged  in  at  a  portable 
transformer  and  the  other  end  is  connected  to 


Fig.  32.     Anchor  wagon  of  single-motor  plough  system. 

the  motor  of  the  winding  wagon.  The  cable 
is  flexible  and  well  insulated,  and  can  be  laid 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground  without  any  dan- 
ger. 

Speed  of  Electric  Ploughing. — It  may  be  of 
interest  to  give  some  facts  and  figures  regard- 
ing the  speed  of  an  electrically  operated  plough. 
The  test  figures  given  were  taken  in  the  early 
development  of  the  system  at  Albrechshausen, 


ELECTKIC  PLOUGHING  155 

Germany,  in  May,  1900.  The  length  of  the  fur- 
rows were  1200  feet,  and  the  plough  was  made 
to  accommodate  four  ploughshares,  so  that  the 
width  of  the  ground  turned  was  3%  feet.  The 
speed  of  the  plough  was  approximately  200  feet 
per  minute.  As  the  tilting  of  the  plough  re- 
quired 45  seconds  at  each  end  of  the  travel, 
this  means  that  %  of  an  acre  were  turned  per 
hour.  The  furrows  were  9  inches  deep,  and  the 
power  required  at  the  station  was  40  horse- 
power. 

To-day  electric  ploughs  are  much  more  effi- 
cient, and  turn  as  much  as  two  to  three  acres 
per  hour,  depending  upon  the  depth  of  the  fur- 
row. When  our  American  manufacturers  of 
farm  machinery,  who  lead  the  world  in  their 
branch,  take  up  the  subject,  these  results  will 
no  doubt  soon  be  exceeded. 

The  following  are  figures  derived  from  actual 
practice  showing  average  conditions  in  the 
field,  and  are  not  of  an  experimental  nature. 

In  a  twelve-hour  day,  with  an  8%-inch 
deep  furrow,  27  acres  were  ploughed,  at  an 
average  current-consumption  of  19.2  kilowatt- 
hours  per  acre.  In  a  twelve-hour  day,  with  a 


156  ELECTEICITY 

10%-inch  deep  furrow,  23.1  acres  were  ploughed 
at  an  average  current-consumption  of  23.2  kilo- 
watt-hours per  acre.  In  the  same  length  of 
time,  with  a  14%-inch  deep  furrow,  20.4  acres 
were  turned  at  an  average  electric  consumption 
of  33.6  kilowatt-hours  per  acre. 

Cost  of  Electric  Ploughing. — The  following 
table  is  derived  from  the  foregoing  data,  and 
shows  the  costs  of  electric  ploughing  under 
various  conditions.  The  electricity  is  figured 
on  the  basis  of  three  cents  per  kilowatt-hour, 
which  is  fair  for  such  a  purpose.  Three  men 
are  required  for  operating  the  plough,  and  their 
combined  wages  are  figured  at  45  cents  per 
hour.  Furrows  are  8%,  10%-inch  and  14% 
inches  in  depth  and  the  latter  is  made  up  of 
an  81/2 -inch  upper  cut  and  a  6-inch  lower  or 
subsoil  cut. 

COST    OF    ELECTRIC    PLOUGHING 


Depth  of  furrows  in  inches   

82 

101 

i4i 

Acres  per  hour    

2.25 

1  92 

1  70 

Minutes  per  acre    

27. 

31 

35 

Kilowatt-hours  per  acre 

19  2 

23  2 

336 

Cost  of  Electricity  per  acre  in  cents  .... 
Wages  per  acre  for  three  men  in  cents   . 
Total  cost  of  ploughing  per  acre  in  cents 

57.6 
20. 
77.6 

69.6 
24.9 
94.5 

100.8 
27.9 

128.7 

It  will  be  noticed  from  the  foregoing  that  the 
cost  of  electric  ploughing  varies  directly  with 


ELECTKIC  PLOUGHING- 


157 


158  ELECTRICITY 

the  depth  of  the  furrow.  The  speed  of  the 
electric  plough  can  be  easily  varied  accord- 
ing to  the  depth  of  the  furrow.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  run  more  rapidly  than  with  other 
kinds  of  ploughs,  which  has  the  additional  ad- 
vantage of  pulverising  the  ground  more  thor- 
oughly than  when  the  plough  is  drawn  slowly. 
The  average  speed  of  a  80-hp.  to  120-hp.  plough, 
with  four  shares  for  nine-inch  furrows,  includ- 
ing time  lost  in  tilting  the  plough  at  the  ends 
of  the  furrows,  is  1.16  metres  per  second  or  315 
feet  per  minute.  This  is  at  a  speed  of  about 
33/2  miles  per  hour,  which  is  considerably  better 
than  a  fast  walk.  This  is  the  average  of  a 
twelve-hour  day  and  might  be  readily  continued 
twenty-four  hours  a  day  with  an  extra  shift  of 
men,  and  the  use  of  electric  lights  such  as  are 
seen  abroad  in  threshing  in  the  field,  etc. 

It  is  often  wondered  why  German  farms  are 
more  productive  per  acre  than  American  farms. 
One  of  the  reasons  is  the  depth  of  the  furrows 
ploughed,  which,  when  the  ploughing  is  done 
by  horses,  is  likely  to  be  very  much  less  than 
with  the  electric  plough.  By  a  proper  rotation 
and  selection  of  crops,  and  by  the  time  saved  be- 


ELECTKIC  PLOUGHING  159 

tween  the  harvest  of  one  crop  and  the  sowing  of 
the  next,  largely  effected  by  the  speediness  of 
the  electric  plough,  the  German  farmer  reaps 
with  its  aid  two  crops  a  year  on  much  of  his 
land,  harvesting  on  an  average  2600  acres  of 
crops  annually  from  1600  acres  of  land. 

There  are  in  the  German  Empire  some  60,- 
000,000  acres  under  cultivation.  There  are 
some  282,000  farms  ranging  from  50  to  250 
acres,  21,000  farms  ranging  from  250  to  1200 
acres  and  4180  farms  of  more  than  1200  acres 
each.  The  electric  plough  is  available  for  use 
on  farms  of  all  sizes,  but  as  it  is  somewhat 
expensive  in  first  cost,  it  is  utilised  only  on  very 
large  sized  farms,  except  where  rented  out  b^ 
an  owner  or  purchased  in  common  by  a  group 
of  small  farmers. 

Comparative  Costs  of  Electric  and  Steam 
Ploughs. — A  one-motor,  80-hp.  to  120-hp, 
plough-system  costs  about  $8000,  while  a  two- 
motor  plough-system  costs  about  $11,000.  A 
steam  plough  of  the  same  capacity  is  more  ex- 
pensive, costing  from  $14,000  to  $15,000.  It 
will  be  seen  that  those  farms  which  can  afford 
a  steam  or  gasoline  tractor-plough,  could  be 


160  ELECTEICITY 

equipped  much  more  cheaply  with  electric 
ploughs. 

Overhead  and  operating  charges,  such  as  re- 
pairs, maintenance,  fuel  (either  coal  or  gaso- 
line), continuous  transportation  of  fuel  by 
means  of  teams  to  the  tractor  in  the  field,  the 
cost  of  having  such  teams  in  readiness  and  the 
loss  of  their  services  when  needed  for  other 
farm  work  delaying  the  planting  of  a  new  crop, 
and  danger  of  fire  and  explosion  at  the  tractor 
itself,  or  where  the  fuel  is  stored  with  increased 
insurance  costs,  all  go  to  make  the  steam  or 
gasoline  plough  much  less  desirable  than  the 
electric  plough ;  indeed,  any  single  item  is  suffi- 
cient to  throw  the  balance  in  favour  of  the 
latter. 

The  electric  plough,  however,  it  may  be  fairly 
stated,  has  the  disadvantage  of  not  being  self- 
propelled  from  the  storage  barn  to  the  field. 
It  could,  however,  readily  be  made  self-pro- 
pelled by  having  a  trolley  wire  of  a  simple 
nature  run  from  the  barn  to  the  field,  similar 
to  the  trackless-trolley  system;  and  this  could 
be  suspended  from  the  poles  of  the  general 
transmission  system. 


ELECTRIC  PLOUGHING  161 

Advantages  of  Electric  Ploughing. — Other 
advantages  of  the  electric  plough  are  that  it 
is  lighter  in  weight  than  a  steam  or  gasoline 
tractor-plough,  more  readily  operated  on  soft 
ground,  as  well  as  more  readily  conveyed  over 
bad  roads  and  light  bridges;  more  applicable 
for  use  on  hilly  ground,  where  the  steam  plough 
cannot  work  on  account  of  the  drainage  of  wa- 
ter in  its  boiler  away  from  the  fire  box;  and 
better  adapted  for  use  in  all  sorts  of  weather, 
especially  during  cold  snaps  when  the  steam 
plough  would  freeze  up  overnight.  The  electric 
plough  requires  fewer  operatives  and  less  ardu- 
ous labour,  and  altogether  its  advantages  are 
so  great  that  it  is  unfair  to  the  other  ploughing 
systems  to  compare  them  with  it. 

In  the  development  of  electric  farming  in 
Germany,  an  entirely  new  conception  of  agri- 
culture has  arisen,  and  one  which  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  order  to  understand  the 
progress  which  has  been  effected. 

Co-operative  Electric  Ploughing. — The  new 
conception  of  agriculture  is  that  it  is  a  manu- 
facturing industry  of  a  more  or  less  co-opera- 
tive nature.  The  German  farmer  does  not 


162  ELECTRICITY 

isolate  himself  and  conduct  his  operations  as 
such  operations  have  been  conducted  for  cen- 
turies, but  he  constantly  seeks  and  receives  the 
benefit  of  the  advice  of  both  the  Government 


Fig.    34.      Electric   ploughing   in   Germany,    showing  single-motor  plough 
system  in  action. 


and  the  distributing  electrical  companies,  as  to 
how  to  co-operate  with  his  neighbour,  and  how 
such  co-operation  can  be  made  to  pay. 

In  addition  to  the  smaller  farmers,  who  to 
so  large  an  extent  act  in  unison,  the  managers 
of  large  estates  also  conduct  their  operations 
on  the  principle  of  manufacturing  industries; 
at  every  turn,  the  most  modern  and  efficient 
machinery  is  utilised,  and  electricity  is  em- 
ployed. 


ELECTEIC  PLOUGHING  163 

Proposed  System  for  Electric  Ploughs. — In 
order  to  remove  the  harvest  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible and  thus  prepare  the  way  for  the  second 
ploughing,  which  must  be  quickly  done  in  order 
to  obtain  two  crops  in  a  single  season,  many 
farms  are  provided  with  inexpensive  electric- 
haulage  systems.  Such  a  system  consists  of  a 
track  of  light  rails,  about  20  inches  apart,  se- 
cured to  cross-ties,  laid  directly  on  the  ground 
with  little  or  no  grading.  An  electrical  con- 
ductor suspended  about  twelve  feet  high,  feeds 
a  small  electric  locomotive.  Such  a  track  costs 
very  little,  and  when  laid  in  sections  can  readily 
be  taken  up  and  stored  or  laid  to  another  field 
as  needed.  An  early  development  of  agricul- 
ture will  be  the  placing  of  inexpensive  but  per- 
manent tracks  over  fields  in  parallel  rows,  five 
hundred  to  a  thousand  feet  apart,  to  be  used 
both  for  the  speedy  removal  of  crops,  and  for 
the  windlass-wagons  of  electric  ploughs.  The 
distance  between  the, tracks  would  depend,  of 
course,  on  the  size,  shape  and  lay  of  the  land. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  How  is  electric  ploughing  accomplished? 

2.  State  the  different  methods  of  electric  ploughing. 


164  ELECTEICITY 

3.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  one-motor  and  two-motor 

plough-system  ? 

4.  Describe  the  construction  of  the  plough  proper. 

5.  Describe  a  single  or  one-motor  plough-system. 

6.  Describe  a  double  or  two-motor  plough-system. 

7.  Describe  an  anchor-wagon. 

8.  How  many  men   are   required   to   operate   a   single-motor 

plough-system  ? 

9.  How  many   men  are   required  to  operate   a   double-motor 

plough- system  ? 

10.  Describe  an  electrically  operated  plough  with  a  track  sys- 

tem. 

11.  Describe  the  advantages  of  the  latter  system. 

12.  What  is  the  speed  of  an  electrically  operated  plough? 

13.  What  is  the  cost  of  electric  ploughing  per  acre  with  fur- 

rows 8|,  lOf  and  14J  inches  deep? 

14.  What  is  the  first  cost  of  a  single-motor  plough-system? 

15.  What  is  the  first  cost  of  a  double-motor  plough-system? 

16.  Could  the  first  cost  of  an  electric  plough  be  reduced  if  our 

large  domestic  manufacturing  concerns  built  them? 


•Pi 
Electric  Broiler. 


CHAPTER  X 

DIVERSE  APPLICATIONS  OF  ELEC- 
TRICITY 

IN  addition  to  the  more  important  uses  of 
electricity  in  the  principal  farming  operations, 
there  is  a  wide  variety  of  applications  of  elec- 
tricity to  minor  operations,  by  which  it  proves 
of  the  greatest  utility  and  convenience,  reliev- 
ing* the  farmer  of  many  tasks  of  the  most  irk- 
some nature,  and  thus  at  a  very  slight  expense 
adding  greatly  to  the  pleasantness  of  rural  life. 

Among  such  uses  the  following  are  especially 
interesting: 

Domestic  Water  Supply. — For  pumping 
water  for  domestic  purposes  two  systems  are 
now  in  use,  known  respectively  as  the  open  tank 
and  the  pressure-tank  system.  In  the  former, 
a  tank  large  enough  to  hold  about  one  day's 
supply  for  domestic  purposes  should  be  used. 
This  can  be  placed  either  on  a  hill  or  on  a  tower 
sufficiently  elevated  to  get  the  desired  pressure. 
The  usual  city  pressure  ranges  between  forty 

165 


166  ELECTEICITY 

and  fifty  pounds  per  square  inch.  To  get  a 
pressure  of  forty  pounds  per  square  inch  will 
require  a  tower  nearly  ninety  feet  high.  As 
this  is  quite  expensive,  a  tank  is  usually  put  but 
little  higher  than  the  upper  floor,  and  in  some 
cases  in  the  attic,  giving  a  pressure  of  possibly 
fifteen  pounds  per  square  inch.  With  this  pres- 
sure the  water  flows  very  slowly  from  the  taps 
on  the  upper  floor  and  is  practically  worthless 
in  case  of  fire.  It  is  therefore  preferable  to  use 
the  pressure  system  when  a  hill  is  not  avail- 
able on  which  to  place  the  tank.  When  an  open 
tank  is  used  it  is  possible  to  put  in  a  float  con- 
nected to  a  switch,  which  will  start  the  motor 
when  the  water  has  reached  a  predetermined 
low  level  and  stop  it  when  the  tank  is  full. 

Pressure  Tank. — In  the  pressure  system  the 
pump  delivers  water  into  a  closed  air-tight  tank 
which  can  be  placed  in  the  basement  or  in  any 
other  convenient  place.  As  the  tank  becomes 
filled  the  air  becomes  compressed  in  the  top. 
When  the  tank  is  half  full  the  air  pressure  is 
fifteen  pounds,  and  when  three-quarters  full 
forty-five  pounds.  This  pressure,  when  a  faucet 
is  opened,  forces  the  water  out  with  a  velocity 


DIVERSE  APPLICATIONS          167 

dependent  upon  the  pressure  in  the  tank  and 
the  difference  in  level  between  the  tank  and  the 
faucet.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  faucet  thirty-five 
feet  above  the  tank  is  open ;  then  the  water  will 
flow  until  the  pressure,  due  to  the  static  head, 
equals  the  pressure  in  the  tank,  which  is  about 
fifteen  pounds.  This  means  that  the  tank  will 
still  be  half  full.  To  obviate  this  air  is  forced 
into  the  tank  either  by  a  differential  plunger, 
small  compressor  or  otherwise,  so  that  the  pres- 
sure at  any  given  fulness  of  the  tank  will  be 
increased.  Thus,  instead  of  the  pressure  being 
fifteen  pounds  when  the  tank  is  half  full,  it  will 
be  thirty  pounds,  so  that  the  tank  can  be  emp- 
tied from  a  faucet  thirty-five  feet  above  the 
tank  level.  An  automatic  pressure-switch  can 
be  installed  that  will  start  or  stop  the  motor, 
keeping  the  pressure  always  within  a  given 
range  of  a  few  pounds. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  small  size  of  the  pump  and  motor 
that  can  be  used  with  either  of  these  systems.  By  reducing 
the  size  the  first  cost  of  the  outfit,  including  the  tank,  is  cut 
down  in  a  marked  degree.  As  the  starting  and  stopping  of 
the  motor  are  done  automatically  and  the  outfit  requires  no 
additional  attention,  the  motor  may  be  run  continuously. 
Where  the  outfit  is  not  automatic,  attention  is  such  an  item 
in  its  operation  as  to  preclude  the  use  of  anything  but  a  large 


168  ELECTEICITY 

pump  so  that  the  necessary  water  may  be  pumped  in  a  few 
hours. 

Automatic  System — A  newer  and  more  effi- 
cient system  for  supplying  water  for  domes- 
tic purposes  is  that  in  which  a  specially  de- 
signed pump  is  automatically  controlled  in 
such  a  way  that  no  tank  is  necessary.  Thus  a 
large  expense  and  all  danger  of  flooding  is 
obviated.  The  pressure  throughout  the  sys- 
tem may  be  uniformly  regulated  as  desired. 
This  system  is  probably  the  best  of  all. 

Electrically  Operated  Milking  Machines. — 
The  history  of  cow-milking  machines  dates  back 
over  a  century.  Besides  the  United  States, 
Australia  and  New  Zealand  are  the  two  most 
prominent  countries  where  real  work  along  this 
line  has  been  done,  and  at  the  present  day 
these  countries  are  second  in  the  use  of  such 
machinery. 

Professor  Oscar  Erf,  an  authority  on  the  sub- 
ject, states: 

"...  The  labour  saved  under  practical  conditions  has  been 
conservatively  estimated  to  range  from  30  to  40  per  cent. 
Hence,  more  responsible  men  can  be  employed  and  higher  wages 
paid.  .  .  .  By  the  use  of  a  milking  machine  the  objectionable 
part  of  hand  milking  is  greatly  eliminated.  The  uncom- 
fortable part  of  milking  is  the  position  in  which  the  milker 


DIVERSE  APPLICATIONS          169 

must  place  himselm.  The  continuous  opening  and  closing  of 
the  fingers  becomes  tiresome.  In  the  summertime  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly warm  work  and  in  winter  it  is  cold,  and  in  fly- 
time  it  is  very  disagreeable.  By  the  use  of  the  machine, 


Fig.    35.     Motor-operated    (belt-connected)    vacuum   pump    and   milking 
outfit.      The  motor  is  mounted  on  the  wall. 

all  of  these  objectionable  features  are  eliminated.  .  .  .  Ma- 
chine milking  is  cleaner  than  hand  milking.  ...  In  all 
cases  milk  taken  from  the  milking  machine  remained  sweet 
for  a  longer  time,  varying  from  one  hour  to  ten  hours  longer 
than  that  obtained  by  hand  milking.  .  .  .  We  have  found 


170  ELECTRICITY 

that  milking  machines,  if  the  vacuum  is  normal  and  the  teat 
cups  fit  well,  are  more  comfortable  to  the  cow  than  hand  milk- 
ing. Some  cows  can  be  milked  by  milking  machines  that  as 
a  rule  cannot  be  milked  by  hand.  .  .  . 

"A  milking  machine  will  milk  cows  as  thoroughly  as  the 
average  milker.  Some  cows  give  more  milk  when  milked  with 
a  machine  than  when  milked  by  hand.  To  reach  the  highest 
degree  of  success  cows  should  be  selected  and  bred  to  respond 
to  machine  milking.  If  this  factor  is  taken  into  consideration, 
machine  milking  will  be  equally  as  successful  as  the  best  hand 
milking.  .  .  ." 

Professor  Lane,  describing  experiments  he 
carried  out  on  milking  machines,  states  that: 

"One  good  careful  man  or  woman  can  operate  four  machines 
milking  eight  cows  simultaneously,  and  an  additional  hand 
can  not  only  carry  away  the  milk,  but  can  assist  in  manipulat- 
ing the  cows'  udders.  The  operating  expense  of  the  machines 
is  comparatively  small." 

One  man  has  milked  60  cows  on  more  than  one 
occasion,  the  time  required  being  two  hours.  If, 
however,  we  include  the  time  of  the  extra  man, 
the  saving  in  time  is  reduced  to  one-half,  or 
58.45  minutes  per  day  for  the  10  cows.  These 
figures  furnish  sufficient  proof  for  the  statement 
that  the  machines  are  time-savers. 

Naturally  the  large  dairyman  will  be  the  first 
to  adopt  the  cow-milker,  for  the  reason  that  his 
equipment  will  cost  him  less  per  cow  than  the 
small  dairyman.  Again,  the  large  dairyman 


DIVEESE  APPLICATIONS          171 

has  more  at  stake  and  has  to  depend  entirely 
upon  the  hired  men  to  do  the  work.  If  they  fail 
him  the  large  dairyman  is  much  more  inde- 
pendent, and  could  himself  milk  a  herd  of  50 
cows  without  assistance.  However,  there  seems 
to  be  no  good  reason  why  a  dairyman  with  a 
herd  of  even  10  or  12  cows  could  not  use  a  ma- 
chine with  profit. 

Milking  Devices. — One  of  the  successful  milk- 
ing devices  consists  of  two  parts,  one  being  the 
milk  can  or  receptacle,  and  the  second  the  ma- 
chine. The  milking-machine  consists  of  a  cover 
which  fits  air-tight  on  the  receptacle  by  means 
of  a  small  rubber  casket.  Mounted  on  the 
cover  is  a  frame,  a  pair  of  vacuum-pumps  and 
a  pair  of  double  valves.  The  pumps  are  op- 
erated through  a  crank-shaft  by  a  small  electric 
motor  of  1/6  hp.  Operatively  connected  with 
the  crank-shaft  is  a  drive  which  puts  the  double 
valves  into  motion.  On  one  side  of  the  frame 
is  a  small  vacuum-gauge  which  indicates  the  de- 
gree of  vacuum  created  in  the  can.  Beneath 
the  vacuum-gauge  is  a  needle-valve  by  means  of 
which  the  degree  of  vacuum  desired  to  milk  the 
cows  can  be  exactly  regulated.  The  double 


172 


ELECTEICITY 


valve  is  equipped  with  a  stopcock  on  which 
is  fastened  a  rubber  tubing  about  3y2  feet  in 
length,  a  transparent  and  flexible  connection 
with  shut-off  clippers  to  a  pair  of  teat-cups 
carrying  pneumatic  cushions. 

While  excellent  results  have  been  obtained 
with  cow-milkers,  yet  in  many  cases,  through 


Fig.   36.      Milking  with  electrically  operated  vacuum  machines. 

carelessness  in  operation,  the  results  have  not 
been  so  encouraging;  and  before  going  into  the 
subject  extensively,  it  should  be  thoroughly  in- 
vestigated. It  is  much  more  successful  with 
some  cows  than  with  others,  owing  perhaps  to 


DIVERSE  APPLICATIONS          173 

the  individual  idiosyncrasies  of  the  animals ;  and 
some  farmers  having  careful  helpers  are  more 
fortunate  in  their  use  of  mechanical  milkers 
than  others  whose  work  is  done  by  careless  per- 
sons. 


Fig.  37.   Electrically  operated  vacuum  stock-cleaning  machines. 

Vacuum-Cleaners. — The  principle  of  cleaning 
by  suction  was  the  direct  outgrowth  of  the  com- 
ing into  use  of  compressed  air,  and  has  been 
employed  on  a  large  scale  for  a  number  of  years 
in  planing  mills  and  wood-working  establish- 
ments for  removing  sawdust  and  shavings. 


174  ELECTRICITY 

Its  use  in  homes,  stables,  etc.,  is  comparatively 
new. 

Four  distinct  types  of  vacuum-cleaning  ma- 
chines are  in  general  use:  (1)  fan  type,  (2) 
diaphragm-pump  type,  (3)  rotary-pump  type, 
(4)  reciprocating-pump  type,  all  made  in  a  va- 
riety of  sizes  and  forms  designed  for  portable, 
semi-portable  and  stationary  service. 

Construction  of  Vacuum  Cleaners. — The  es- 
sential features  of  any  vacuum-cleaner  are  its 
inlet,  a  dust-catcher,  a  motor-driven  pump  or 
fan,  and  an  exhaust.  To  the  inlet  is  connected 
the  hose  through  which  the  dust-laden  air 
passes.  The  dust-catcher  in  the  smaller  ma- 
chines is  usually  a  cloth  or  felt  bag,  often  con- 
cealed in  a  metal  chamber.  The  motor-driven 
pump  or  fan  produces  the  vacuum  or  suction, 
and  the  exhaust  merely  disposes  of  the  dust- 
free  air,  which  may  often  be  used  for  blowing 
purposes,  using  the  same  hose  ordinarily  at- 
tached to  the  inlet.  It  is  obvious  that  these 
various  essential  parts  can  be  arranged  in  many 
ways  and  the  result  is  machines  that  differ 
widely  in  appearance. 

The  smaller  vacuum-cleaning  devices  are  in- 


DIVERSE  APPLICATIONS          175 

tended  for  portable  use  close  to  the  operator, 
while  the  larger  stationary  outfits  are  generally 
placed  in  the  basement  of  the  house  or  stable, 
the  building  being  piped  so  that  a  hose  can  be 
coupled  to  the  suction  pipe,  usually  placed  near 
the  floor  in  the  various  rooms  or  compartments. 

A  large  variety  of  cleaning  tools  are  em- 
ployed, any  one  of  which  can  be  connected  di- 
rectly to  the  end  of  the  hose,  making  the  de- 
vice suitable  for  many  varieties  of  cleaning, 
such  as  for  cleaning  carpets,  heavy  rugs,  tapes- 
tries, hard-wood  floors,  walls,  books  standing  in 
the  shelves,  clothes  on  the  individual,  etc. 

Electric  Fans. — Good  ventilation  is  as  essen- 
tial to  comfort  as  good  illumination,  especially 
where  many  persons  congregate,  as  in  stores, 
restaurants,  theatres,  clubs,  etc.  Such  places 
would  have  scant  patronage,  particularly  dur- 
ing the  summer  months,  were  they  not  pro- 
vided with  artificial  ventilation  by  the  modern 
electric  fans. 

The  small  cost  of  operating  well-designed 
fan-motors  makes  them  a  paying  investment  in 
the  office  or  factory,  for  wherever  the  ease  of 
employes  may  be  increased  by  comfortable 


176  ELECTEICITY 

surroundings  and  cooling  breezes  the  result  is 
increased  quantity  and  better  quality  of  work. 
The  home  should  certainly  be  as  comfortable  as 
the  office,  and  when  it  is  considered  that  an 
electric  fan-motor,  suitable  for  the  home,  costs 
less  to  operate  than  one  standard  incandescent 
lamp,  that  is,  from  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  a 
cent  per  hour,  it  is  evident  that  the  proper  ven- 
tilation of  the  various  rooms  during  the  hot 
weather  is  easily  within  the  reach  of  the  most 
modestly  appointed  home. 

Electric  Fans  in  Winter. — Most  users  of  elec- 
tris  fans  store  them  as  soon  as  the  cool  weather 
sets  in,  evidently  assuming  the  fans  to  be  use- 
ful only  for  making  them  comfortable  during 
the  warm  days  and  nights;  but  a  study  of  the 
indoor  air  will  show  that  the  fan  really  can 
serve  a  greater  variety  of  useful  purposes  in 
the  average  room  during  the  winter  than  dur- 
ing the  summer.  Indeed,  the  refreshing  effect 
produced  by  the  use  of  fans  during  warm 
weather  is  due  only  in  part  to  the  cooling  of 
the  skin,  the  rest  of  the  action  being  explained 
by  the  diffusing  of  the  air  so  as  to  distribute  the 
carbon  dioxid  and  other  products  of  exhala- 


DIVEBSE  APPLICATIONS         177 

tion.  This  dissemination  of  the  products  of 
breathing  can  be  accomplished  just  as  effectively 
in  winter  as  in  summer  by  a  forced  circulation, 
and  even  in  somewhat  underheated  rooms  it  will 
have  a  refreshing  effect  on,  the  occupants  if  so 
placed  that  injurious  cold  drafts  are  not  set  in 
motion. 

In  the  average  steam-heated  room,  the  ordi- 
nary convection  currents  of  air  are  too  slow 
to  create  an  even  temperature,  so  that  it  is  quite 
common  to  have  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a 
radiator  overheated  while  the  opposite  side  of 
the  room  is  far  below  the  normal.  In  such 
cases  it  is  easy  to  use  an  electric  fan  to  inter- 
mingle the  air-strata  and  thereby  distribute  the 
heat  more  evenly.  This  is  usually  done  by  set- 
ting the  fan  on  the  floor  and  letting  it  blow  the 
air  towards  the  radiator,  a  simple  expedient 
which  should  be  more  generally  used  in  sick 
rooms  where  patients  are  so  often  uncomfort- 
ably cold,  although  within  a  few  feet  of  hot 
radiators. 

Electric  Fans  in  Stores. — In  stores  the  un- 
even distribution  of  heat  is  not  apt  to  be  so 
bothersome  as  in  residences,  but  the  coating  of 


178 


ELECTEICITY 


window  panes  with  a  film  of  frost  or  of  mois- 
ture interferes  seriously  with  the  business- 
drawing  powers  of  the  store  windows.  As  this 


i 


Fig.  38.      Shearing  sheep  by  electric  power. 


coating  forms  only  because  the  glass  is  so  much 
colder  than  the  air  in  the  store,  the  remedy  con- 
sists in  simply  blowing  a  current  of  hot  air 
against  the  window  glass  long  enough  to  warm 
and  dry  it.  While  this  same  frosting  or  dim- 


DIVEBSE  APPLICATIONS          179 

ming  of  the  window  panes  in  a  home  is  not  ob- 
jectionable from  a  commercial  standpoint,  it  is 
serious  in  other  ways,  as  the  moisture  thus  de- 
posited must  be  taken  from  the  air  of  the  room 
which  is  thereby  robbed  of  a  part  of  its  healthful 
humidity,  hence  any  method  of  redistributing 
the  moisture  through  the  air  of  the  room  will 
improve  its  healthfulness.  Here,  as  in  stores, 
the  deposit  on  the  windows  is  soon  removed  by 
letting  the  fan  blow  against  the  lower  panes, 
for  which  purpose  the  fan  may  need  to  be  placed 
on  a  chair  or  table.  Most  users  of  steam  or 
hot-water  radiators  know  that  the  use  of  water- 
pans  in  the  arid  rooms  is  ineffective,  largely  for 
the  reason  that  the  air  moves  over  the  surface 
of  the  water  at  a  very  slow  rate.  The  forced 
circulation  of  this  air  by  a  fan,  allowing  more 
of  it  to  absorb  moisture,  will  increase  the  hu- 
midity of  the  air  in  the  room.  At  present  even 
our  hospitals  are  paying  too  little  attention  to 
this  important  question  of  humidity. 

Ozonisers  to  Purify  Air. — The  air  of  the 
"piney  woods  "  has  a  soothing  and  pleasant  ef- 
fect on  the  lungs.  The  turpentine  contained  in 
the  pine  produces  and  sets  free  in  the  air  small 


180  ELECTEICITY 

quantities  of  ozone,  and  the  volatile  oil  of  pine, 
which  gives  the  fragrant  and  aromatic  odour, 
also  has  the  power  of  accumulating  ozone.  Na- 
ture constantly  vitalises  out-door  air  by  sun- 
shine, winds,  rain,  snow  and  electrical  dis- 
charges. The  peculiar  fresh,  invigorating,  pure 
and  wholesome  air  after  a  thunderstorm  is  due  to 
the  ozone  produced  by  the  electrical  discharges. 
Ozone  is  a  colourless  gas  with  a  pungent 
odour,  like  that  of  chlorin,  formed  variously,  as 
by  the  passage  of  electricity  through  the  air. 
It  is  regarded  as  another  form  of  oxygen,  con- 
taining three  atoms  in  the  molecule,  and  is  an 
extremely  powerful  agent  in  causing  a  compound 
to  unite  with  oxygen  chemically.  It  is  both  an 
antiseptic  and  a  deodoriser,  having  the  great 
advantage  over  all  other  disinfectants  that  it 
both  destroys  deleterious  matter  and  imparts 
to  the  atmosphere  properties  which  make  it 
purer,  healthier  and  more  invigorating.  When 
inhaled,  ozone  fills  the  blood  with  oxygen — ox- 
idises it — and  causes  it  to  circulate  more  quickly. 
It  also  increases  the  oxyhaemoglobin  in  the  blood, 
stimulates  the  appetite,  and  assists  in  produc- 
ing sleep. 


DIVERSE  APPLICATIONS          181 

Oxygen  is  a  colourless,  tasteless  and  odourless  gas  element, 
the  most  abundant  and  most  important  yet  discovered.  The 
weight  of  the  oxygen  of  the  globe  exceeds  that. of  all  other 
elements  combined.  It  forms  by  weight  about  3-4  of  the  ani- 
mal, 4-5  of  the  vegetable,  and  1-2  of  the  mineral  worlds,  1-5 
by  volume  of  the  atmosphere,  and  8-9  by  weight  of  water. 
Its  inhalation  by  human  beings  and  animals  is  essential  to 
life;  hence  it  was  formerly  called  vital  air.  Pure  air  is  21 
per  cent,  oxygen,  78  nitrogen  and  1  per  cent,  argon,  with  vari- 
able quantities  of  aqueous  vapour,  carbon  dioxid,  ammonia, 
ozone,  acid  compounds  of  nitrogen  and  sulphur  and  small 
amounts  of  many  other  gases.  Its  oxygen  is  not  only  essential 
to  animal  heat  and  life,  but  is  also  a  source  of  power,  light 
and  electricity.  The  use  of  air  that  has  been  contaminated 
ever  so  little  from  any  source  is  injurious.  With  feeble  pa- 
tients it  may  be  the  deciding  factor  against  recovery.  Air 
which  has  been  inhaled  and  exhaled  is  charged  with  poison- 
ous waste, — carbon  dioxid,  broken-down  cells,  water  vapour, 
disease-germs  and  its  oxygen  is  much  reduced.  Such  exhaled 
air  is  a  real  poison. 

The  ozoniser  is  an  ozone-producing  appa- 
ratus for  purifying  the  air  of  dwellings,  offices, 
and  public  buildings.  It  is  run  by  electricity. 
By  merely  turning  a  button  one  is  able  to  pro- 
duce in  the  bedroom,  office  or  workshop  all  the 
life-sustaining  powers  of  fresh  mountain  air. 
At  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  living- 
rooms,  large  quantities  of  ozone  are  produced, 
the  foul  air  is  revitalised  and  filled  with  pure 
life-sustaining  atmospheric  ozone.  The  elec- 
tricity can  be  taken  from  the  ordinary  house 


182  ELECTEICITY 

wire  in  the  same  manner  as  for  lighting,  and 
costs  no  more  than  a  single  lamp. 

What  the  Ozoniser  Does. — The  ozoniser  imi- 
tates the  action  of  the  lightning  on  the  outdoor 
air,  and  diffuses  a  constant  supply  of  pure 
ozone,  thus  destroying  germs  and  dangerous 
floating  matter  in  the  atmosphere.  It  makes 
the  air  of  the  apartments  as  fresh  and  pleasant 
to  breathe  as  a  breeze  from  the  pine  forests. 
No  chemicals  are  used  in  the  apparatus.  No 
foreign  matter  is  introduced  into  the  natural 
air.  Silent  discharges  of  electricity  restore 
free  ozone  to  the  atmosphere.  If  you  cannot 
keep  your  windows  and  doors  open  to  let  in 
the  necessary  oxygen  and  carry  out  the  poison- 
ous gases,  because  you  cannot  stand  the  draft, 
the  ozoniser  will  give  you  better  air  than  that 
outside. 

The  Ozoniser  in  Refrigerating  Chambers. — 
The  necessity  of  keeping  up  a  pure  supply  of 
air  in  refrigerating  chambers,  in  order  to  keep 
the  provisions  stored  therein,  in  a  fresh  condi- 
tion is  imperative,  and  for  this  purpose  ozone  is 
invaluable.  The  oxygen  contained  in  such  air 
must  not  be  allowed  to  fall  below  a  certain  de- 


DIVEBSE  APPLICATIONS          183 

gree  and  the  undue  saturation  of  the  air  with 
the  emanations  of  the  provisions  stored  therein 
must  be  prevented.  The  latter  precaution  is  of 
particular  importance,  because  such  emanations 
tend  to  favour  the  development  of  bacteria, 
which  act  detrimentally  on  the  provisions.  The 
preventive  measures  generally  taken  against 
this  evil,  consist  in  allowing  a  certain  amount  of 
fresh  air  from  the  outside  to  enter  the  refrig- 
erating chamber  from  time  to  time,  and  to  mix 
with  the  air  confined  there.  But  this  necessary 
proceeding  has  the  disadvantage  of  requiring 
an  increased  manufacture  of  cold  air,  because 
the  yearly  average  temperature  of  the  air  out- 
side is  higher  than  the  air  in  the  refrigerating 
chamber,  thus  requiring  greater  cooling  than 
the  air  circulating  in  the  chamber,  and  secondly 
because  the  outside  air  contains  much  moisture 
and  deposits  much  aqueous  vapour. 

The  great  advantage  for  using  ozone  for  this 
purpose  consists  in  its  property  of  purifying  en- 
closed air,  by  destroying  the  above-mentioned 
emanations,  provided  that  the  air  thus  treated 
is  kept  in  constant  circulation.  The  electric 
current  consumed  per  apparatus  for  100  cubic 


184  ELECTEICITY 

metres  of  air  per  hour  amounts  (without  count- 
ing the  fan)  to  30  watts  only.  The  air  of  the 
refrigerating  chambers  is  always  regenerated 
by  the  aid  of  these  ozonators  in  the  same  pro- 
portion as  it  is  conducted  to  the  chambers,  and 
therefore  the  drawing  in  of  the  outside  fresh 
air  with  its  attendant  disadvantages  becomes 
quite  superfluous. 

The  degree  of  concentration  of  the  ozonised 
air  is  of  importance  for  the  success  of  the  proc- 
ess. Too  great  a  quantity  of  ozone  acts  det- 
rimentally, whereas  too  small  a  quantity  of  the 
same  would  not  produce  the  desired  effect.  Ex- 
periments have  proved  that  the  lowest  limit 
for  the  amount  of  ozone  is  0.05  milligram,  and 
the  highest  limit  5.5  milligrams  per  cubic  metre. 
The  requisite  amount  of  the  ozone  is  regulated 
according  to  the  circumstances.  Every  trace 
of  an  unpleasant  smell  in  meat-cooling  and 
pickling  (salting)  houses,  etc.,  disappears  with 
the  use  of  ozone. 

Felling  Trees  1y  Electricity. — The  forests 
have  been  long  immune  from  inroads  of  elec- 
tric progress,  for  it  has  not  seemed  feasible  to 
change  the  historic  methods  of  felling  trees. 


DIVERSE  APPLICATIONS          185 

The  woodman's  axe  still  resounds  through  the 
forests,  though  every  wasted  chip  now  means 
the  loss  of  timber  much  more  valuable  than 


Fig.   39.     Apparatus  for  felling  trees  by  electricity. 

formerly.  To  imitate  the  effective  stroke  of  the 
axe  which  strikes  from  continually  changing  di- 
rections would  require  a  complicated  mecha- 
nism and  one  liable  to  serious  damage  if  a  tree 


186  ELECTEICITY 

should  fall  upon  it.  The  same  breakage-risk 
would  be  met  in  any  attempt  to  drive  a  saw  by 
electricity,  as  is  found  to  be  the  case  in  the 
steam-actuated  tree-felling  saws  made  for  co- 
lonial use  by  English  manufacturers.  Besides, 
a  sweep  of  a  power-driven  saw  like  that  of  the 
ordinary  double-handed  saw  of  common  prac- 
tice requires  considerable  space,  thus  prohibit- 
ing the  use  of  any  such  instrument  until  one 
or  more  trees  have  been  chopped  down  wher- 
ever they  are  closely  bunched.  The  steam- 
driven  tree  saw  also  requires  a  crew  of  men 
for  operation,  besides  a  team  for  moving  the 
plant  about  the  forest.  The  fact  that  these 
steam  saws  are  proving  economical,  in  spite  of 
such  difficulties,  shows  that  power-cutting  is 
needed,  and  that  there  ought  to  be  a  field  for 
a  tree-feller  with  fewer  handicaps. 

Aside  from  chopping  and  sawing,  a  third 
method  of  tree-felling  consists  in  burning 
through  the  base  of  the  trunk.  To  do  this  with 
a  bonfire  is  at  once  slow,  wasteful  of  timber 
and  likely  to  cause  a  forest  conflagration. 
Burning  experiments  were  made  a  few  years 
ago  with  a  high-resistance  wire  heated  by  elec- 


DIVEKSE  APPLICATIONS          187 

tricity  and  looped  around  a  tree  so  as  to  burn 
its  way  through.  This  proved  too  frail  and 
costly  for  practice,  though  the  trials  showed 
that  by  such  means  a  tree  could  be  cut  much 
closer  to  the  ground  than  otherwise. 

Cutting  ~by  the  Friction  Wire. — More  recently, 
as  described  in  The  Electrical  World  of  Feb.  2, 
1911,  a  German  inventor,  Hugo  Gantke,  has  per- 
fected another  method  of  cutting  timber  by  the 
use  of  a  hot  wire.  The  heat  in  this  case  is  sup- 
plied not  by  the  passage  of  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity, but  by  the  friction  of  the  wire  on  the 
tree  itself.  For  this  purpose  a  steel  wire  is 
looped  tightly  around  the  tree  and  pulled  back 
and  forth  about  1500-  times  a  minute  by  an  elec- 
tric motor.  The  cutting  wire  itself  need  only 
be  a  little  longer  than  half  the  circumference  of 
the  tree,  being  coupled  to  a  steel  strand  cable 
which  leads  to  the  motor,  thereby  allowing  the 
latter  to  be  placed  100  ft.  or  even  150  ft.  away. 
The  cut  can  easily  be  started  close  to  the  earth 
(or,  if  desired,  a  trifle  below  the  surface)  so  that, 
instead  of  the  usual  stumps  which  interfere 
with  the  transportation  of  the  timber,  no  ob- 
structions are  left  above  the  ground.  This 


188  ELECTEICITY 

lowering  of  the  cutting  adds  to  the  length  of 
the  log  a  foot  or  two  of  the  wide-spreading 
base,  thereby  enlarging  the  average  diameter 
from  which  the  lumber  feet  in  the  log  are  fig- 
ured. With  the  hot-wire  method  no  wedging 
is  needed  as  in  sawing,  and  the  end  of  the  log 
is  charred  so  that  it  can  be  marked  with  cray- 
ons. The  carbon  coating  also  protects  the  cut 
ends  against  the  action  of  the  weather  if  the 
log  is  left  lying  on  the  ground  for  a  time.  Con- 
sequently it  is  fairly  claimed  for  the  new 
method  that  it  increases  the  amount  of  lumber 
obtained,  avoids  the  expense  of  stump  pulling, 
decreases  the  cost  of  transporting  the  logs,  and 
reduces  the  amount  of  rotting  if  the  timber  is 
not  promptly  moved. 

Considerations  of  Cost. — The  labour-cost  va- 
ries with  the  size  and  hardness  of  the  timber. 
Experiments  have  indicated  that  the  time  re- 
quired for  cutting  trees  of  a  given  size  increases 
with  the  hardness  of  the  wood  in  about  the 
same  ratio  for  the  hot-wire  method  as  for  a 
double-ended  saw  in  the  hands  of  a  skilled  work- 
man, the  ratio  being  about  3.3  minutes  for  Ger- 
man linden  or  ironwood  and  1.8  minutes  for 


DIVERSE  APPLICATIONS          189 

beech  or  oak,  in  proportion  to  every  minute 
needed  for  cutting  pine  of  the  same  diameter. 
However,  the  required  time  does  not  increase 
nearly  as  fast  for  the  friction-wire  method  as 
for  hand-sawing  with  an  increase  in  diameter  of 
the  same  wood.  Thus  the  cutting-time  for 
Scotch  fir  (which  cuts  about  six  per  cent, 
faster  than  pine)  is  as  follows: 

Diameter  of   fir,  inches    7.6  12  19.2 

Minutes  for  hand  sawing 1.5  4  12 

Minutes  for  hot-wire  cutting    0.7  1.8       4.5 

For  beech,  similar  tests  showed  this  comparison: 

Diameter  of  beech,  inches   7.6  12  19.2       30 

Minutes    for    hand    sawing    2.7  6.9  18.9     120 

Minutes  for  hot-wire  cutting   1.3  3.4       8.5       20.8 

In  these  comparisons  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  hand  sawing  required  two  men  and  for 
fair-sized  trees  a  third  at  the  wedges,  while 
the  hot-wire  method  needs  but  one  man,  even 
on  the  largest  trees.  This,  minus  rests,  which 
even  experienced  men  take  between  cuts,  means 
that  the  real  difference  in  output  per  man  would 
be  tremendously  in  favour  of  the  hot-wire 
method.  For  large  trees  it  would  appear  from 
figures  lately  published  in  The  Timber  Trades 
Journal,  of  London,  that  the  steam-driven  tree- 
saws  will  do  even  faster  work  per  tree,  but  they 


190 


ELECTKICITY 


require  four  men  and  a  span  of  horses,  besides 
leaving  the  objectionable  stumps. 

Electric  Incubators. — The  advantages  of  the 


Fig.   40.     Electric   heated  and  regulated  hover. 

use  of  electricity  for  incubating  and  brooding 
eggs  and  chickens  are  many;  briefly:  econ- 
omy in  use,  labour  included;  convenience  in  lo- 
cation of  incubator;  absence  of  fumes  and 
gases;  perfect  distribution  of  heat  in  the  egg- 
chamber  ;  simplicity  and  accuracy  of  regulation. 
Tests  have  demonstrated  that  it  costs  about 
one-half  more  to  operate  an  incubator  of  any 
given  size  by  electricity  at  the  usual  rates  per 
current,  than  it  does  by  the  use  of  kerosene 


DIVERSE  APPLICATIONS          191 

oil, — when  no  account  is  taken  of  the  labour 
saved.  When  electricity  is  used  the  labour  item 
is  practically  nothing.  There  is  no  lamp  to 
be  cleaned  and  filled,  no  wick  to  be  trimmed, 
no  dirt,  no  waste,  and  the  machine  can  be  lo- 
cated where  it  will  be  most  convenient  for  the 
caretaker.  An  electrically  heated  incubator, 
being  entirely  free  from  odour  and  gases,  can 
be  operated  in  a  living  room  where  the  temper- 
ature averages  above  70  degrees,  and  therefore 
comparatively  little  electric  current  is  required 
to  create  and  maintain  a  hatching  temperature 
of  103  degrees  in  the  egg-chamber. 

An  electrically  operated  incubator  or  brooder 
has  another  advantage  over  a  lamp-heated  ma- 
chine; which  is  in  the  fact  that  in  the  electric 
incubator  the  heat  (or  current)  is  "cut  out" 
as  soon  as  the  temperature  in  the  egg-chamber 
reaches  103  degrees,  and  thereupon  all  expense 
stops  instantly,  whereas  when  the  regulator  on 
a  lamp-machine  opens  the  damper  above  the 
lamp-flame,  the  consumption  of  oil  continues, 
the  surplus  heat  being  discharged  into  the  apart- 
ment in  which  the  machine  is  located.  Electric 
incubators  are  undoubtedly  superior  to  the 
other  forms. 


192  ELECTRICITY 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  the  open- tank  pumping  system? 

2.  What  is  the  pressure-tank  pumping  system? 

3.  What   are   the   advantages   of   using  electrically   operated 

milking  devices? 

4.  What  are  the  disadvantages? 

5.  Describe  the  operation  of  milking  devices. 

6.  Describe     the     construction     and     operation     of     vacuum- 

cleaners. 

7.  What  are  the  advantages  of  using  a  vacuum-cleaner? 

8.  Describe  the  usefulness  of  electric  fans. 

9.  What  is  ozone? 

10.  What  is  pure  air? 

11.  Where  should  the  ozoniser  be  installed? 

12.  What  are  the  benefits  of  using  ozonisers  in  refrigeration? 

13.  Describe  an  electric  machine  for  felling  trees. 

14.  What  is  the  time  consumed  for  felling  trees  of   a  given 

size? 

15.  Describe  the  Gantke  tree-feller. 

16.  What  are  the  advantages  of  electrically  heated  incubators? 


r» 

Combined  toaster  and  griddle. 


CHAPTEE  XI 
ELECTEIC  HEATING 

ELECTEIC  heating  dates  back  at  least  to  the 
year  1800,  when  Sir  Humphry  Davy  first  pro- 
duced the  carbon  arc  by  means  of  primary  bat- 
teries. From  that  time  little  was  done  to 
further  the  use  of  electricity  for  heating,  but 
during  the  last  years  of  the  19th  century  the 
cost  of  producing  electric  power  began  to 
be  reduced  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  it 
available  for  certain  heating  purposes  where 
cost  was  not  of  the  utmost  importance.  Within 
the  last  five  years  an  enormous  development  has 
taken  place  in  its  use,  so  that  to-day  there  are 
comparatively  few  industrial  processes  which 
cannot  afford  to  use  it  in  some  way  or  another. 

Efficiency  of  Electric  Heating. — It  is  possible 
to  obtain  100  per  cent,  efficiency  from  the  con- 
version of  electric  current  into  heat,  but  in 
spite  of  this  fact,  for  such  purposes  as  heating 
of  buildings  it  is  still  far  from  a  commercial 

193 


194  ELECTEICITY 

commodity  when  compared  with  other  heat 
sources.  Some  figures  taken  from  The  Elec- 
trical Record  of  June,  1910,  will  illustrate  this : 

One  kilowatt-hour  will  produce  3412  B.  T.  IL, 
whereas  one  pound  of  good  coal  will  produce 
14,000  B.  T.  IL,  so  that  4  kilowatt-hours  are 
about  the  equivalent  of  one  pound  of  coal,  which, 
at  present  commercial  rates,  places  a  very  on- 
erous burden  on  the  use  of  electricity  for  such 
purposes.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  highly 
serviceable  for  some  uses  on  account  of  its  great 
convenience,  cleanliness  and  adaptability. 

Electric  heating  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  domestic  and  industrial.  In  the  former 
we  find  the  heating  of  utensils,  such  as  toasters, 
coffee-percolators,  milk-warmers,  etc.,  as  well 
as  flatirons,  heating-pads  and  similar  sick- 
room necessities. 

Preparing  Breakfast. — Coffee  is  generally  re- 
garded as  the  most  important  item  of  a  break- 
fast. Electricity  will  prepare  this  in  a  few 
minutes  at  a  cost  of  about  1  cent.  Toast 
enough  for  the  family  is  made  in  from  10  to  15 
minutes  at  an  equal  cost,  and  eggs  are  boiled 
at  a  cost  of  1%  cents.  Or,  if  a  heartier  break- 


ELECTRIC  HEATING 


195 


fast  is  required,  20  or  30  minutes  will  prepare 
any  one  of  a  hundred  simple  eatables  on  the 
chafing  dish  at  a  cost  not  to  exceed  2  cents. 


Fig.   41.     Preparing  breakfast  by  electricity. 

Thus  4  cents  a  day,  or  $1.20  a  month,  will  get 
the  family  through  some  of  the  most  trying 
hours  of  the  day,  without  any  particular  trouble 
or  inconvenience  to  any  one.  No  one  has  to  get 
up  and  go  down  to  build  the  kitchen  fire,  or 


196  ELECTBICITY 

do  any  of  the  many  things  which  are  usually 
necessary  in  getting  the  family  started  for  the 
day. 

Electric  Ir owing. — Ironing  day  comes  once  a 
week,  and  here  again  electricity  makes  its  ap- 
pearance. With  an  electrically  heated  flatiron 


Fig.    42.     Electric   dining-room   set. 

the  ironing  is  done  not  only  at  a  distinct  saving 
in  time  and  steps  over  former  methods,  but 
whenever  it  is  most  convenient.  The  week's 
wash  may  be  ironed  at  a  cost  of  perhaps  20 
cents,  or  another  80  cents  per  month,  bringing 
the  total  bill  up  to  $2  per  month. 

Preparing  Afternoon  Tea. — On  many  other 
occasions  electricity  may  also  be  put  to  work, 
getting  the  afternoon  tea  in  8  to  10  minutes  at 
a  cost  of  less  than  1  cent,  cooking  a  chafing- 


ELECTEIC  HEATING  197 

dish  supper  at  a  cost  of  from  3  to  4  cents ;  and, 
in  case  of  sickness,  the  heating-pad  supersedes 
the  old-fashioned  hot-water  bottle,  furnishing 
the  invalid  with  constant,  even  warmth  all  night 
at  a  cost  of  2  cents. 

For  the  Bath. — Besides  these  smaller  and 
frequently  used  articles,  there  is  another  class 
of  electric  heating  which  is  very  intermittent 
in  its  use,  but  none  the  less  welcome.  A  2-kw. 
radiator,  turned  on  for  20  minutes  or  so  in  the 
early  morning,  wil]  render  a  bath-room  comfort- 
able at  a  cost  of  8  cents.  A  portable  plate- 
warmer  will  keep  some  one's  dinner  hot  for  an 
hour  for  3  cents  without  drying  it  up  or  run- 
ning the  chance  of  ruining  the  dishes  in  an 
oven. 

Electric  Cooking. — The  application  of  elec- 
tricity to  cooking  is  a  most  interesting  one. 
For  light  meals,  like  the  breakfast  described 
above,  it  is  very  inexpensive.  Many  a  meal  can 
be  had  with  a  disc-stove,  or  perhaps  two,  and 
a  few  detachable  utensils,  at  an  expense  of  from 
3  to  10  cents,  depending  on  the  menu.  Two 
small  disc-stoves  have  long  sufficed  to  get  break- 
fast for  one  man  and  his  wife,  who  take  the  rest 


198  ELECTEICITY 

of  their  meals  out.  On  rising  a  cereal  is  put  on 
and  is  cooked  by  the  time  they  are  ready  for 
it.  Eggs  are  then  boiled,  poached  or  fried,  on 
one  stove  while  the  coffee  is  made  on  the  other, 
and  finally  each  partner  makes  toast  on  the 
stove-top  while  the  breakfast  is  being  eaten. 

An  electric  waffle-iron  may  be  used  on  the 
table  or  in  the  kitchen,  as  occasion  warrants. 
Waffles  made  in  this  way  are  much  lighter  than 
those  made  over  a  fire,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  cooked  on  both  sides  at  once.  The 
even  distribution  of  heat  over  the  entire  sur- 
face insures  a  perfect  brown,  and  about  one- 
fourth  less  batter  is  necessary.  The  cost  will 
not,  on  the  average,  exceed  3-10  of  a  cent  per 
waffle. 

With  an  electric  broiler  there  are  no  gas  or 
charcoal  fumes  to  affect  the  nourishing  quali- 
ties of  the  food;  and  the  placing  of  the  meat 
directly  upon  the  heated  surface  so  sears  the 
outside  that  practically  none  of  the  juice  es- 
capes. While  the  current  consumption  is  con- 
siderable, 1%-kilowatts  on  the  smaller  sizes  in 
a  few  minutes  will  broil  an  ordinary  steak  at 
a  cost  of  314  cents.  Fish  and  chops  will  be 


ELECTEIC  HEATING  199 

cooked  even  more  quickly,  at  a  cost  of  3  cents 
or  less  for  a  family  of  four  or  five. 

Griddles  for  frying  pancakes,  etc.,  and  ket- 
tles for  doughnuts,  croquettes,  and  other  things 
which  are  cooked  in  deep  fat,  may  be  operated 
at  a  cost  of  8  or  9  cents  per  hour. 

Family  Cooking. — To  do  the  entire  cooking 
for  a  family  on  a  competitive  cost  basis  with 
gas  or  coal  is  a  different  matter.  All  the  above 
prices  have  been  figured  at  about  the  average 
lighting-rate  of  10  cents  per  kilowatt-hour,  but 
an  electric  kitchen  range  demands,  and  in  many 
cases  receives,  a  better  rate.  Current  consump- 
tion varies  greatly  with  the  scale  of  living,  but 
will  average  1  or  1%  kilowatt-hours  per  per- 
son per  day. 

To  attain  these  results  some  care  must  be 
used.  Maid  and  mistress  must  learn  that  cur- 
rent may  be  wasted  by  carelessly  leaving  the 
oven,  stove  or  broiler  turned  on.  Practically 
all  apparatus  of  this  kind  is  provided  with 
controlling  switches  which  regulate  the  in- 
tensity of  the  heat.  An  article  put  on  to 
boil  will  take,  say,  500  watts  for  15  minutes  to 
bring  it  to  the  boiling  point,  but  125  watts  will 


200  ELECTRICITY 

keep  it  simmering.  Bread  is  baked  by  perhaps 
30  minutes'  use  of  a  maximum  amount  to  heat 
up  the  oven,  then  15  minutes  on  the  medium, 
and  the  completion  of  the  baking  without  the 


Fig.  43.     Electric  baking  and  cooking. 

use  of  any  current  at  all,  a  total  energy  expendi- 
ture of  1  kilowatt-hour. 

The  clock  has  an  important  position  in  the 
electric  kitchen.  After  once  timing  a  perfect 
cake,  it  can  be  repeated  indefinitely  with  un- 
varying success,  and  the  "slow  fire"  and  the 


ELECTEIC  HEATING  201 

"hot  fire"  terrors  of  the  young  housewife  dis- 
appear. 

In  many  families  the  mistress  does  the  cook- 
ing. With  electricity  she  finds  most  of  the  old 
drudgery  gone.  The  heat,  smoke  and  dirt  have 
disappeared  with  the  wood-box,  the  coal-scuttle 
and  the  ash-can,  and  the  time  and  labour  saved 
for  other  things  more  than  compensate  for  the 
additional  expense. 

Keeping  a  range  clean  is  a  very  simple  mat- 
ter. The  heating  element  itself  requires  pra'c- 
tically  no  attention  save  an  occasional  wiping 
with  a  damp  cloth,  as  the  utensil  protects  it 
while  in  use.  The  broiler  may  be  treated  in 
the  same  way  when  still  fairly  warm.  Aside 
from  the  heaters  there  are  no  surfaces  where 
drippings  can  lodge  and  burn,  for  the  rest  of 
the  range  always  remains  cool. 

In  hotels  and  institutions,  large  electric 
ranges  and  grills  are  frequently  installed.  The 
former  find  them  especially  convenient  as  occu- 
pying less  room  than  the  coal  range,  being 
cleaner  and  more  convenient.  Hospitals  find 
that  not  only  is  the  cooking  more  sanitary,  but 
all  the  conditions  surrounding  it  are  so  im- 


202  ELECTRICITY 

proved  that  from  the  standpoint  of  health 
alone  an  -electric  range  is  very  well  worth  while. 
In  summer,  when  the  heat  of  the  ordinary 
kitchen  is  to  be  dreaded,  an  electric  oven  may 
be  running  on  the  maximum  with  no  perceptible 
radiation  2  feet  away,  and  windows  may  be 


Fig.   44.     Electric  waffle  irons. 

wide  open,  for  there  is  no  flame  to  be  affected 
by  the  wind. 

Of  more  recent  growth  are  the  applications 
of  electric  heating  on  a  larger  scale.  The 
laundry  presents  a  good  example,  but  here  care 
must  be  taken  to  provide  the  right  equipment 
or  the  installation  may  be  a  failure  through 
no  fault  of  the  apparatus.  As  the  work  is  done 
faster  and  more  continuously  than  in  the  home, 
the  wattage  must  be  greater,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, a  laundry  running  idle  quickly  increases 
greatly  in  temperature. 

Heating  Water. — To  what  extent  water-heat- 


ELECTEIC  HEATING  203 

ing  by  electricity  is  practical  depends  entirely 
upon  conditions.  Anything  like  instantaneous 
water-heating  is  almost  out  of  the  question  on 
account  of  the  large  amount  of  current  neces- 
sary, but  small  amounts  of  hot  water  may  be 
obtained  with  a  small  installation,  provided 
time  be  taken.  A  rough  and  handy  rule  is  that/ 
300  watt-hours  will  raise  10  gallons  of  water! 
10  degrees,  but  this  may  vary  considerably 
with  radiation,  and  300  watts  in  a  cold  bath-tub 
would  be  almost  entirely  dissipated  owing  to 
the  great  capacity  of  the  tub  itself  for  absorb- 
ing the  seat. 

Therefore  the  proper  and  adequate  heat  insu- 
lation of  any  container  of  water-heaters  is  very 
important.  An  electric  boiler  may  be  useful 
and  at  a  4  cent  rate,  which  is  not  uncommon 
for  this  purpose,  and  with  an  initial  water- 
temperature  of  50°  F.,  such  a  boiler  will  furnish 
100  gallons  of  water  per  day  at  110°  F.,  a  warm 
bath  temperature,  for  60  cents,  or  6-10  of  a 
cent  per  gallon.  The  heating  element  consists 
of  coils  of  tubing  within  the  boilers,  and  these 
are  removable. 


204  ELECTEICITY 

A  CENT'S  WOETH  OF  ELECTRICITY,  AT  10  CTS.  PEB  KW-HB. 

Will  keep  a  6-lb.  electric  flat-iron  hot  for  15  min. 
Will  make  four  cups  of  coffee  in  an  electric  coffee  percolator. 
Will  keep  an  8-in.  disc  stove  hot  for  7  min.,  or  long  enough 
to  cook  a  steak. 

Will  operate  a  luminous  radiator  for  8  min. 

Will  bring  to  a  boil  two  quarts  of  water. 

Will  make  a  Welsh  rarebit  in  an  electric  chafing-dish. 

Will  operate  a  7-in.  frying  pan  for  12  min. 

Will  operate  an  electric  griddle  for  8  min. 

Will  run  the  electric  broiler  for  6  min. 

Will  keep  the  foot-warmer  hot  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 

Will  heat  an  electric  curling-iron  once  a  day  for  two  weeks. 

Miscellaneous  Uses. — Baking  ovens  may  be 
had  in  various  capacities  up  to  100  or  more 
loaves  per  day.  These  ovens  may  be  accurately 
timed  to  produce  the  best  results,  and  the  heat- 
ers so  disposed  that  the  bread  is  evenly  baked. 

The  purely  commercial  uses  of  electrical 
heating  are  numerous  and  rapidly  growing. 
Many  types  of  shoe  machinery  are  now 
equipped  and  factories  making  clothing,  over- 
alls, shirts,  and  even  lace  curtains,  use  electric 
flatirons.  Bookbinders'  tools,  rubber  vulcan- 
isers,  branding  irons,  embossing  presses,  ma- 
trix driers,  hair  driers — all  are  successfully 
heated  by  electricity. 

Doctors  and  dentists  use  electric  sterilisers, 


ELECTRIC  HEATING  205 

electric  ovens  for  sterilising  bandages,  and  elec- 
tric cautery  needles  and  knives  for  operations. 
Wood  workers  use  electric  glue  pots,  metal 
workers  soldering  irons,  and  bankers  and  ex- 


rig.  45.    Electric  iron. 

press     companies     electric     sealing-wax    pots. 
The  field  is  constantly  broadening. 

These  details  of  heating  are  only  an  outline 
of  the  subject.  The  art  has  grown  enormously 
during  the  last  five  years,  and  to-day  there  are 
hundreds  of  different  devices  for  domestic  pur- 
poses, ranging  from  curling  irons  to  complete 
cooking  ranges,  eliminating  an  untold  amount 
of  danger.  Electric  household  devices  are  not 
only  for  the  residences  of  the  wealthy  but  also 
for  the  cottages  and  apartments  of  the  less  for- 
tunate, where  they  are  of  vastly  greater  service 


206  ELECTRICITY 

and  importance,  because  in  such  homes  servants 
are  not  commonly  employed. 

Heating  of  Rooms. — One  of  the  manifold 
uses  to  which  electric  heat  is  applied  is  the  arti- 
ficial heating  of  air  in  buildings  on  a  compara- 
tively small  scale.  While  this  method  of 
obtaining  artificial  warmth  has  not  yet  reached 
a  state  of  perfection  permitting  it  to  be  eco- 
nomically applied  to  the  heating  of  the  air  of 
large  buildings,  yet  the  convenience  arising 
from  the  facility  with  which  the  electric  current 
can  be  led  to  the  heater,  the  comparatively  small 
size  and  portability  of  the  latter,  the  readiness 
with  which  the  current  can  be  turned  on  and 
off,  the  safety  of  the  apparatus,  its  freedom 
from  fumes  and  dirt,  and  the  ease  with  which 
it  can  be  managed,  are  being  more  and  more 
appreciated  and  their  use  is  rapidly  increasing. 

The  subject  of  heating  and  ventilating  rooms 
is  a  very  broad  one,  and  is  affected  by  so  many 
different  conditions  that  no  steadfast  rule  can 
be  laid.  Some  of  the  ever-varying  conditions 
are: 

Sizes  of  the  rooms  or  buildings. 
Amount  of  exposed  wall  surface. 
Thickness  of  walls. 


ELECTRIC  HEATING  207 

Amount  of  exposed  glass   surface. 

Whether  the  glass  surface  is  single  or  double. 

Building  material  used,  as  wood,  brick,  etc. 

Temperature  desired. 

Minimum  outside  temperature. 

Number  of  times  air  is  changed  per  hour. 

As  these  conditions  are  frequently  not  known, 


Fig.  46.     Electric  range. 


it  is  safe  to  figure  that  it  requires  one  watt- 
hour  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  cubic  foot 
of  air  about  200  degrees  F. 

In  addition  to  raising  the  temperature  of  the 
air  to  the  desired  degree,  the  loss  of  heat 
through  conduction  and  ventilation  must  be 
taken  into  consideration.  Electric  energy  sup- 


208  ELECTRICITY 

plied  at  the  rate  of  one  watt  will  raise  the  tem- 
perature of  a  cubic  foot  of  air  at  the  rate  of 
0.0556  degrees  F.  per  second,  or  approximately 
3.3  degrees  per  minute. 

The  power  required  to  keep  the  temperature  at  a  given  de- 
gree can  be  roughly  estimated  by  assuming  the  number  of 
cubic  feet  of  air  which  are  required  per  minute  for  ventila- 
tion, multiplying  this  by  the  number  of  degrees  which  the 
temperature  must  be  raised  and  then  dividing  the  product  by 
3.3,  which  gives  the  number  of  watts  necessary  to  maintain 
the  temperature.  For  example,  assume  a  room  15  by  15  ft. 
and  10  ft.  high,  in  which  the  air  is  changed  three  times  an 
hour,  and  the  temperature  to  be  maintained  30  deg.  above  the 
outside.  The  volume  of  the  room=15  X  15  X  10=2250  cu.  ft. 

2250 

=  112.5  cu.  ft.  per  min. 

20 

30 

112.5  X  —  =  1020  watts  necessary  to  supply  ventilation  loss. 
3.3 

To  begin  with,  the  air  of  the  room  must  be  raised  30  deg. 
This  will  require 

30 

2250  X =  370  watt-hours. 

200 

Therefore  the  total  energy  used  during  the  first  hour  will  be 
1.020  -f  0.370  =  1.390  kw.hr.,  and  during  the  succeeding  hours 
it  will  be  1.020  kw.hr.  per  hour.  It  will  be  noticed  that  by 
far  the  largest  part  of  the  energy  is  used  in  supplying  the 
loss  due  to  ventilation. 

The  amount  of  power  for  electrically  heating 
a  room  depends  greatly  upon  the  amount  of 
glass  surface  in  the  room  as  well  as  upon  the 
draughts  and  admission  of  cold  air.  An  em- 


ELECTEIC  HEATING  209 

pirical  rule,  commonly  employed,  is  to  figure 
from  I1/*?  to  2  watts  per  cubic  foot  of  space  to 
be  heated. 

According  to  European  authorities,  if  a  sitting-room  with 
a  content  of  100  cubic  metres  is  to  be  heated  to  17  degrees, 
centigrade,  while  the  temperature  of  the  outside  is  3  deg.  cent., 
the  engineer  estimates  that  3500  kilogram  calories  are  re- 
quired per  hour.  With  electric  heating  this  means  a  con- 
sumption of  4  kw.hr.  for  every  hour,  while  with  coal  fuel 
about  3  kilograms  of  coal  are  required  per  hour.  Experience 
has  shown  that  for  every  degree  Cent,  difference  between  the 
lowest  outside  temperature  and  the  desired  inside  tempera- 
ture, and  for  every  cubic  metre  of  space  to  be  heated,  1  to 
1.5  watts  of  electric  power  are  required.  As  an  approximate 
average,  1.2  watts  may  be  assumed.  For  instance,  if  the  out- 
side temperature  is  10  deg.  Cent,  below,  and  a  sitting-room 
of  50  cubic  metres  is  to  be  heated  to  18  deg.  Cent.,  the  differ- 
ence of  temperature  is  28  deg.  Cent.  Hence  1680  to  1800  watts 
are  required,  while  the  time  in  which  the  desired  temperature 
is  obtained  varies  from  one  to  three  hours,  varying  of  course, 
according  to  whether  the  neighbouring  rooms  are  heated  or  not. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  For  how  long  a  time  have  electric  heaters  been  in  use? 

2.  What  is  one  kilowatt-hour  expressed  in  heat  units? 

3.  Describe   the   various    electric   heating  appliances   for   do- 

mestic use. 
4'.  Give  examples  of  cost-figures  for  electric  heating. 

5.  Give  examples  of  cost-figures  for  electric  cooking. 

6.  Give  comparative  cost-figures  of  heating  by  gas  and  elec- 

tricity. 

7.  Give  comparative  cost-figures  of  cooking  by  gas  and  elec- 

tricity. 

8.  Can  large  rooms  advantageously  be  heated  by  electricity? 

9.  Give  the  calculation  to  ascertain  the  watt-hours  required 
for  heating  rooms. 


CHAPTEE  XII 
ELECTEIC  LIGHTING 

THERE  are  few  subjects  which  demand  more 
attention  than  the  illumination  of  the  home,  as 
the  proper  lighting  of  a  house  adds  very  much 
to  both  its  comfort  and  its  appearance.  Illu- 
mination has  gone  through  many  stages  of  de- 
velopment. The  earliest  forms  of  lighting,  the 
pine  torch,  the  candle,  and  the  kerosene  lamp, 
bear  a  marked  contrast  to  the  modern  electric 
light. 

With  the  introduction  of  electricity  came  the 
greatest  step  in  advance.  The  use  of  matches 
and  the  consequent  fire-risk,  the  annoyances  of 
filling  and  caring  for  lamps,  the  breakage  of 
chimneys  and  parts,  the  prevalence  of  smoke 
and  disagreeable  odours,  the  vitiation  of  the  air, 
inseparable  from  both  oil  and  gas  lights,  have 
all  been  eliminated  by  electric  lights. 

However,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  the  in- 
210 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTING 


211 


troduction  of  improved  appliances,  the  cost  of 
apparatus  for  generating  electricity  and  the 
large  amount  of  it  required  for  lighting  a  home, 


Fig.   47.     Electrically  lighted  stable. 

limited  its  earlier  use  either  to  those  who  could 
afford  the  expense  of  installing  and  maintain- 
ing a  large  and  elaborate  plant,  or  to  those  who 
lived  within  reach  of  a  public  service  electric- 
lighting  station. 


212  ELECTEICITY 

The  Incandescent  Lamps. — The  tungsten  lamp 
has  made  it  possible  to  obtain  the  same  amount 
of  illumination  formerly  afforded  by  the  car- 
bon filament  lamp  with  one-third  of  the  elec- 
tricity. This  lamp  will  wear  longer  than  the 
old  style  lamp  and  maintains  its  full  brilliancy 
during  the  greater  part  of  its  life.  It  is  also 
less  sensitive  to  the  variations  in  pressures  of 
electricity,  and  therefore  its  use  requires  less 
complicated  and  expensive  apparatus. 

The  reduction  in  the  amount  of  electrical  en- 
ergy required  per  tungsten  lamp  has  brought 
about  a  proportionate  reduction  in  the  cost  of 
generating  and  storing  electricity,  so  that  now 
the  many  advantages  to  be  gained  from  the  va- 
rious uses  of  electricity  are  within  reach  of  all 
those  of  very  moderate  means.  The  country 
resident  or  farmer,  situated  beyond  the  reach 
of  a  public  electric-lighting  station,  is  now  able 
at  very  small  expense  to  install  and  operate 
his  own  lighting  plant. 

The  need  of  an  efficient  lighting  system  for 
farms  has  long  been  recognised  as  of  great  im- 
portance for  the  country.  With  better  light, 
greater  efficiency  and  cleanliness  is  secured  all 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  213 

around,  fire  risk  is  diminished  and  insurance 
rates  are  reduced.  Small  electric  lamps  in 
closets  and  in  dark  corners,  in  cellar  or  attic, 
are  very  convenient.  These  small  electric 
lights  take  the  place  of  oil  lamps  or  candles, 
whose  light  is  unsatisfactory,  and  the  use  of 
which  is  inconvenient  and  dangerous. 

Electric  illumination  is  the  superior  method 
for  the  lighting  of  stables  and  barns.  The  use 
of  lanterns  in  and  about  barns  and  similar 
places  has  been  the  cause  of  numberless  fires 
and  the  destruction  of  millions  of  dollars '  worth 
of  property,  as  it  is  seldom  that  the  country 
house  has  available  apparatus  for  successfully 
fighting  fires.  Electric  lamps  require  no 
matches,  and  burn  without  flame,  consume  no 
oxygen  and  therefore  do  not  vitiate  the  air  of 
the  room.  They  are  turned  off  by  a  simple 
switch  placed  in  any  convenient  part  of  the 
house.  The  electric  system  is  not  affected  by 
extremely  cold  weather,  as  is  the  case  with  gas. 

Having  electric  current  on  the  farm  for  op- 
erating the  various  machines,  it  is  but  natural 
that  advantage  should  be  taken  for  the  utilisa- 
tion of  the  current  for  lighting  the  house,  barns 


214  ELECTEICITY 

and  outbuildings,  yard  and  grounds.  In  the 
following  discussion,  the  scheme  and  method 
of  lighting  the  various  rooms,  buildings  and 
yards  will  be  treated  separately.  Two  differ- 
ent methods  of  lighting  will  come  under  con- 
sideration, the  incandescent  lamp  and  the  arc 
light;  the  former  for  small  spaces  such  as 
rooms,  stairways,  etc.,  the  latter  for  large  areas, 
such  as  the  interior  of  barns  and  sheds,  and  for 
yard  lighting. 

Arc  Lamps. — An  important  use  for  the  arc 
light  in  modern  farming  is  found  in  the  illu- 
mination of  the  field  during  the  time  of  harvest. 
Threshing  can  be  continued  long  after  nightfall 
by  locating  an  arc-lamp  or  two  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  threshing  machine.  The  advantage  of 
threshing  after  dusk  is  very  apparent  and  the 
arc  lamp  is  a  simple  and  convenient  solution  of 
such  a  situation.  Winds  do  not  affect  the  op- 
eration or  the  intensity  of  light  given  out.  The 
general  adoption  of  the  flame  arc-lamp  for  the 
lighting  of  streets,  barn-yards  and  large  inte- 
riors, and  the  growth  in  the  number  of  installa- 
tions for  this  class  of  service  during  the  few 
years  since  the  lamp  was  first  introduced  in 


ELECTEIC  LIGHTING  215 

America,  are  due  to  its  superiority  when  com- 
pared with  other  lighting  units.  It  is  now  gen- 
erally conceded  that  this  is  the  most  efficient 
illuminant  yet  developed,  and  that  the  penetra- 
ting quality  of  the  brilliant  golden  yellow  light 
is  such  that  even  under  the  most  adverse  con- 
ditions, such  as  those  imposed  by  fog  or  smoke, 
it  provides  a  highly  satisfactory  illumination. 

Exterior  Lighting. — Arc-lamps  are  suspended 
from  poles,  brackets  on  buildings,  or  even  from 
cables  strung  between  buildings.  For  illumi- 
nating a  threshing  field,  a  portable  pole  can 
easily  be  erected  on  the  threshing  machine  it- 
self, or  on  the  motor-wagon  accompanying  the 
thresher.  Such  a  pole  may  be  either  of  wood 
or  sections  of  pipe,  screwed  together  and  of 
sufficient  length  to  support  the  lamp  high 
enough  in  the  air  so  that  the  most  economical 
area  is  lighted. 

For  lighting  a  large  interior  by  arc-lamps, 
small  lamps  are  made  with  the  mechanism  com- 
pact and  the  light  given  out  very  intense.  The 
selection  of  such  lamps  must  be  left  to  the  engi- 
neer having  charge  of  the  installation. 

Interior  Lighting. — As  previously  stated,  for 


216  ELECTEICITY 

interior  lighting  incandescent  bulbs,  with  either 
the  old  carbon  filament  or  the  new  tungsten 
style,  are  used.  The  introduction  of  the  new 
metal  filament  incandescent  lamp  has  pro- 
duced results  of  a  far-reaching  and  most  rev- 
olutionary character  in  the  lighting  industry. 
To  its  many  advantages  of  convenience,  safety, 
adaptability,  portability,  low  maintenance-cost, 
cleanliness  and  reliability,  the  metal  filament 
has  added  a  three-fold  improvement  in  effi- 
ciency which  definitely  establishes  the  incandes- 
cent lamp  as  the  ideal  illuminant,  and  ensures 
it  a  supreme  position  in  the  lighting  field. 

The  first  metal  filament  lamp,  the  tantalum, 
with  its  efficiency  of  2  watts  per  candle,  was 
closely  followed  by  the  tungsten  lamp  with  an 
efficiency  of  l1/^  watts  per  candle.  The  tung- 
sten lamp  (also  called  Mazda)  gives  the  high 
efficiency  of  1  to  1%  watts  per  candle,  and  rep- 
resents the  highest  attainment  in  this  direction. 

Electricity  can  now  compete  with  gas  and 
other  illuminant s  on  an  equal  basis  of  cost,  thus 
opening  a  field  for  new  business  of  almost  un- 
limited extent.  A.  more  liberal  use  of  light 
(larger  lamps  and  longer  hours  of  service)  is 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTING 


217 


Fig.   48.     Electric  threshing  by   electric  light.     View  taken  on  an   au- 
tumn night,  during  the  early  days  of  electric  farming  in  Germany. 

possible  without  excessive  cost,  thus  improving 
the  load-factor  of  the  central  station.  A  much 
better  quality  of  light  is  secured,  a  light  that 


218  ELECTEICITY 

is  not  only  superior  in  brilliancy  and  intensity, 
but  more  attractive  in  colour  and  better  suited 
for  general  illumination. 

While  the  tungsten  or  Mazda  lamp  thus  ad- 
vances the  art  of  lighting,  it  also  maintains  the 
simplicity  of  installation  and  operation  of  the 
ordinary  incandescent  lamp.  It  is  available  in 
small  or  large  units  having  equal  efficiency;  it 
has  no  moving  parts,  is  applicable  to  all  classes 
of  service,  whether  direct  or  alternating  cur- 
rent of  any  frequency,  and,  most  important  of 
all,  it  involves  no  heavy  investment. 

The  surprising  increase  in  efficiency  is  given 
by  the  filament  and  is  due  to  two  causes :  first, 
the  fact  that,  due  to  selective  radiation,  the 
filament  gives  more  light  at  the  same  tempera- 
ture than  the  carbon  filament ;  second,  that  the 
filament  of  the  tungsten  lamp  can  stand  a  much 
higher  temperature  than  the  carbon  filament. 
A  much  higher  degree  of  incandescence  is  thus 
obtained,  and  a  much  greater  volume  of  light 
per  unit  of  energy  is  produced,  as  shown  by  the 
remarkable  efficiency  of  1  to  l1/^  watts  per 
candle. 

Example  of  Lighting  Rural  Residence, — For 


ELECTEIC  LIGHTING  219 

lighting  farm  residences  and  country  homes 
in  general,  by  the  incandescent-lamp  system, 
the  following  outlines  from  a  bulletin  issued  by 
the  University  of  Illinois,  are  of  interest: 

Since  the  living-room  is  the  one  in  which  most  of  leisure 
time  of  the  family  is  spent,  it  should  therefore  be  well  lighted. 
First  of  all  there  must  be  a  light  for  reading  purposes.  Since 
the  family  is  likely  to  be  large,  several  persons  will  often  want 
to  read  at  the  same  time,  so  a  considerable  area  should  be 
well  illuminated.  The  ordinary  table  electric  reading-lamp 
would  be  very  satisfactory  for  one  or  two  persons  to  read 
by  if  the  room  were  otherwise  generally  illuminated.  In  the 
ordinary  farm  home,  however,  the  lamp  that  furnishes  light 
for  reading  is  usually  required  to  furnish  a  general  illumina- 
tion for  the  room.  This  a  table  lamp  will  not  do.  Accord- 
ingly, a  three-light  fixture  is  provided.  In  this  fixture  the 
middle  socket  points  directly  downward,  and  is  equipped  with 
a  prismatic  glass  reflector.  This  will  concentrate  the  light 
under  the  chandelier  for  reading  purposes,  and  at  the  same 
time  give  a  moderate  illumination  of  the  walls  and  ceiling. 
Thus,  the  single  reading  lamp  becomes  sufficient  for  ordinary 
occasions.  When  a  more  general  illumination  is  desired,  the 
middle  lamp  is  turned  out  and  the  two  outside  lamps  are 
used.  These  two  lamps  are  provided  with  prismatic  reflecting 
globes.  Since  the  reflecting  globes  will  prevent  the  dazzling 
direct  rays  from  the  filament  from  reaching  the  eyes  of  a  per- 
son in  the  room,  unfrosted  lamps  may  be  used.  The  middle 
lamp,  however,  may  be  seen  from  positions  close  under  the 
chandelier.  Hence  a  frosted  lamp  should  be  used  here.  The 
fixture  should  be  hung  so  that  the  lamps  are  about  six  and 
one-half  feet  from  the  floor. 

A  dining-room  requires  a  strong  illumination  over  the  table 
and  a  soft  pleasing  light  over  the  walls  and  ceiling.  This  can 
be  obtained  by  two  lamps  placed  in  prismatic  bowl-reflectors 
hung  at  a  height  of  six  feet  from  the  floor.  These  reflectors 


220  ELECTEICITY 

will  distribute  the  light  well  to  the  edges  of  the  table,  while 
the  ceiling  and  walls  will  be  sufficiently  lighted  to  make  the 
room  seem  cheerful,  but  not  brilliant.  Frosted-tip  lamps 
should  be  use'd.  A  single  unfrosted  lamp  placed  in  a  glass 
reflector  will  amply  light  the  hall.  It  should  be  hung  about 
eight  feet  from  the  floor. 

The  kitchen  has  such  an  important  place  in  the  life  of  the 
farm  house-wife,  that  it  should  be  well  illuminated.  This 
can  be  adequately  done  by  a  single  lamp  in  a  pendant  fixture 
hanging  rather  high  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  and  provided 
with  opal  bell-reflector.  Over  the  stove  and  table  where  it  is 
most  needed,  there  is  an  adjustable  bracket-fixture  with  an 
opal  bell-reflector  and  a  frosted-tip  lamp. 

One  lamp  placed  inside  of  a  prismatic  reflecting  ball  is  used 
for  lighting  the  porch.  This  is  placed  in  front  of  the  door 
and  directly  on  the  ceiling.  The  upper  fluted  portion  of  the 
ball  throws  the  light  downward  where  it  is  needed.  The  lower 
portion  is  frosted  in  order  to  soften  the  glare  of  the  filament. 

The  lights  in  the  cellar  are  equipped  with  the  flat  enamelled 
metal  reflectors,  and  are  placed  on  the  ceiling. 

For  each  bedroom  a  bracket  fixture  carrying  one  frosted  light 
in  an  opal  bell-reflector  is  provided,  and  placed  high  enough 
to  furnish  a  good  light  by  which  to  dress  beneath  it.  An 
eight-candlepower  carbon  lamp  is  placed  in  three  of  the  closets. 
These  are  simple  drop  lights  suspended  about  6J  feet  from  the 
floor,  and  no  extra  length  of  cord  should  be  provided,  or  the 
lamp  may  be  hung  upon  a  hook  in  contact  with  clothing.  Then, 
if  the  lamp  is  accidentally  left  lighted,  a  fire  is  almost  sure  to 
follow.  Simple,  single-light  pendant  fixtures  are  provided  for 
the  second  floor  hall  and  the  bathroom.  These  are  equipped 
with  opal  bell-reflectors  and  are  hung  about  seven  and  one-half 
feet  from  the  floor.  The  lamps  should  be  frosted. 

The  following  table  is  a  summary  of  the  num- 
ber and  distribution  of  the  lights  of  an  ordinary 
country  residence;  and  also  shows  the  number 
of  lamp-hours  per  twenty-four  hours. 


ELECTEIC  LIGHTING  221 


'  >•  6  lamp  houra 


Dining   Room:    Two   lights,   on   during 
breakfast  and  supper 

5:00 — 6:30    a.  m 

5:30 — 7:00   p.  m 

Living    Room:    Three    lights,    on    only 

after  supper. 
7:00—10:30   p. m 10£  lamp  houra 

Kitchen:   Two  lights,  on  morning  and 
evening. 

5:00-7:30   a.  m |  10  j  hours 

5:00 — 7:30  p.  m J 

Front  Hall:   One  light 
8 :00 — 10 :30   p.  m 2|  lamp  hours 

Fr|nt  Porch:   One  light 
7  :30— 9 :00   p.  m li  lamp  hours 

Rear  Hall:    One  light 


Bedrooms:  Two  lights 

5:00 — 5:30  a.  m 

9:00—9:30   p.  m 

One  light 

10:30—11:00   p.  m 

Total     ." .  .  35 &  lamp  hours 


lamp  hours 


Tungsten  or  Mazda  lamps  ordinarily  installed 
in  residences  are  of  25-watt  or  40-watt  size. 
Using  the  25-watt  size,  the  daily  cost  of  35% 
lamp-hours  would  amount  to  14%  cents  a  day 
or  $4.35  a  month  and  with  the  40-watt  size,  the 
cost  would  be  18%  cents  a  day  or  $5.62  a  month. 

Effect  of  Wall  Colour. — In  using  lights,  sev- 
.eral  factors  of  great  importance  must  be  taken 
into  consideration,  in  addition  to  the  placing 


222  ELECTEICITY 

of  the  lamps  in  the  best  positions  and  the  use 
of  certain  forms  of  globes,  and  these  factors 
are  the  colours  of  the  shades,  the  colour  of  the 
wall-paper  and  the  effect  of  the  combination  on 
the  eyesight. 

The  colour  of  the  wall-paper  increases  or  de- 
creases the  volume  of  light  in  a  room  in  pro- 
portion to  its  reflecting  properties.  In  a  room 
coated  with  white  paper,  a  large  part  of  the 
light  that  strikes  the  wall  is  reflected  back  into 
the  room  while,  when  a  chocolate  colour  is  used, 
only  a  small  part  is  reflected ;  the  white-papered 
room  will  be  more  than  three  times  as  effectively 
illuminated  as  the  other.  Papers  arranged  ac- 
cording to  their  colours  reflect  light  and  add  to 
the  illumination  of  a  room  in  the  following  or- 
der, expressed  in  terms  of  illuminating  value: 

White   3.33 

Chrome  Yellow   2.63 

Orange 2.00 

Plain  Pine  Wood   82 

Yellow  Paper    67 

Light  Pink  Paper 56 

Yellow  Paint    25 

Emerald  Green  Paper   22 

Dark  Brown  Paper   15 

Vermilion  Paper    14 

Blue-Green  Paper 14 

Cobalt  Blue  Paper 14 

Deep  Chocolate  Paper  1.04 


ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  223 

Effect  of  Globe  and  Shade  Colour. — The  col- 
ours of  the  globes  and  shades  have  a  greater 
effect  upon  illumination  than  the  colour  of  the 
walls,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  tables. 
The  absorption  of  light  in  clear  glass  globes 
is  very  low,  while  in  cobalt-blue  globes  prac- 
tically all  the  light  is  absorbed,  as  appears  from 
the  subjoined  list. 

Colour  of  Glass  Per  cent. 

Clear  Glass 5  to  10 

Light  Sand-blasted    10  to  20 

Alabaster 10  to  20 

Canary-coloured 15  to  20 

Light  Blue    15  to  25 

Heavy   Blue    15  to  30 

Ribbed  Glass    15  to  30 

Opaline  Glass   15  to  40 

Ground    Glass    20  to  SO 

Medium    Opalescent    25  to  40 

Heavy  Opalescent    30  to  60 

Flame  Glass   30  to  60 

Signal   Green    80  to  90 

Ruby  Glass  85  to  90 

Cobalt  Blue    -. 90  to  95 

While  to  produce  the  greatest  amount  of  light- 
ing white  walls  and  clear  glass  globes  are 
requisite,  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  high 
illumination  may  affect  the  eyes  most  unfavour- 
ably. Conservation  of  the  eyesight  is  quite  as 
important  as  conservation  of  electric  energy 
and  certain  principles  should  be  observed. 
Light  should  be  so  shaded  that  the  rays  are 


224  ELECTRICITY 

not  reflected  into  the  eyes  as  a  glare.  The  di- 
rect rays  of  the  incandescent  filament  should 
not  strike  the  eye.  Light  coming  in  large  quan- 
tities from  an  unusual  direction  should  be 
avoided.  An  example  of  this  is  seen  in  the  ef- 
fects of  foot-lights  and  spot-lights  on  the  eyes 
of  actors.  Both  too  much  and  too  little  light 
should  be  avoided.  Sources  of  light  which  pro- 
duce streaks,  and  sharp  contrasts,  as  between 
a  brilliantly  lighted  desk  and  the  remainder  of 
the  room  in  darkness,  should  be  avoided. 

In  a  well-lighted  room,  the  lighting  should 
be  such  that  it  attracts  no  attention  to  itself, 
either  from  being  too  intense  or  too  dim,  just 
as  a  well-dressed  man  is  one  so  garbed  that  his 
clothing  attracts  no  attention  on  its  own  ac- 
count. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  of  electric  lighting? 

2.  Describe  the  old  and  new  types  of  incandescent  lamps. 

3.  Where  should  an  arc-lamp  be  used? 

4.  Describe  interior  lighting  systems. 

5.  Describe  exterior  lighting  systems. 

6.  Describe  an  example  of  rural  residence  lighting. 

7.  What  is  the  effect  of  wall  colour  in  illuminating  a  room? 

8.  What  is  the  effect  of  colour  in  lamp  shades? 

9.  What  is  the  most  efficient  colour  for  wall  and  lamp  shades  ? 


CHAPTEE  XIII 

THE  TELEPHONE  IN  EUEAL  COMMUNI- 
TIES 

THE  farmer  of  to-day,  whenever  he  is 
thoroughly  convinced  that  a  certain  tool  or 
piece  of  machinery  will  do  his  work  better,  do 
more  of  it,  or  increase  his  income,  isn't  very 
long  in  becoming  the  owner  of  that  tool  or  ma- 
chine. That  this  attitude  has  proven  benefi- 
cial to  himself  and  to  his  calling  is  demonstrated 
by  the  wonderful  strides  agriculture  has  taken, 
and  the  improved  methods  employed  on  the 
average  farm.  But  he  must  be  convinced.  He 
is  a  careful,  prudent  man,  not  quick  to  jump  at 
conclusions. 

The  first  thought  that  must  have  come  to  the 
minds  of  a  majority  of  farmers  upon  the  advent 
of  the  rural  telephone  line  was,  "Of  what  good 
to  the  farmer  is  the  telephone  1"  This  was 
a  very  natural  question. 

Some  farmers  argued  that  they  had  gotten 

225 


226  ELECTEICITY 

along  so  far  in  life  without  the  telephone,  why 
not  the  rest  of  their  days!  This  same  argu- 
ment, if  carried  out,  would  have  kept  hundreds 
of  other  improvements,  now  considered  abso- 
lute necessities,  off  the  farm,  and  would  thus 
have  greatly  retarded  the  march  of  agricultural 
progress. 

Because  a  man  might  walk  from  New  York 
to  Chicago  is  no  reason  why  it  would  not  be 
cheaper  and  more  sensible  to  ride,  as  well  as 
being  quicker  and  easier.  Thousands  of 
farmers,  however,  were  quick  to  recognise  the 
value  of  the  telephone  to  the  rural  resident. 
They  foresaw  the  improved  conditions  that  its 
adoption  would  bring  to  them  and  their  fami- 
lies, and  the  consequence  is  that  the  building  of 
farm  lines,  which  began  a  long  time  ago,  is  go- 
ing on  at  a  livelier  rate  than  ever  to-day.  No 
one  questions  the  statement  that  time  is  money, 
and  very  few  will  question  the  statement  that 
as  a  time-saver  the  telephone  has  no  equal. 
Time  is  an  important  item  on  the  farm.  The 
need  of  a  telephone  connection  is  far  more  ur- 
gent to  the  farmer  than  to  the  city  man.  Every 
errand  means  a  long  trip  to  town  or  to  the 


THE  TELEPHONE  227 

neighbours,  involving  a  loss  at  every  step.  Lost 
time  means  lost  money  and  lost  opportunity. 

Suppose  in  the  rush  of  the  busy  season,  when 
every  hour  is  precious,  a  piece  of  machinery 
breaks  down.  What  is  the  result?  To  get  re- 
pairs means  a  trip  to  town;  lost  time;  perhaps 
a  wasted  crop.  With  the  telephone  at  hand, 
the  new  part  may  be  ordered  in  a  moment  and 
be  on  its  way  by  rural  delivery  before  the 
"boy"  could  saddle  his  pony  and  get  started 
after  it,  often  reducing  the  delay  from  a  day 
to  an  hour. 

The  product  of  the  average  farm  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  is  worth  $850  but  the  progressive 
business  farmer  who  uses  the  most  improved 
implements  and  machinery  produces  50  to  100 
per  cent,  more  than  the  average.  There  are 
only  about  200  good  working  days  in  a  year  on 
the  farm,  therefore  every  day  counts.  When  a 
corn  field  is  getting  weedy,  a  day's  work  with 
the  cultivator  will  make  a  difference  of  $25  in 
the  value  of  the  crop.  When  a  field  of  wheat 
is  ripe,  the  delay  of  a  day  may  cost  more. 

The  successful  farmer  has  to  consider  all 
these  things  and  he  cannot  afford  the  time  to 


228  ELECTEICITY 

run  errands  when  nature  is  calling  him  to  the 
fields.  Help  on  the  farm  is  scarce,  and  is  more 
difficult  to  find  each  year.  The  farmer  must 
help  himself  by  using  everything  which  will 
save  labour  and  make  his  time  go  farthest, 
and  a  man  with  the  most  modern  equipment 
can  do  as  much  as  two  or  three  men  with  old, 
out-of-date  methods. 

A  Time  Saver. — The  farmer  with  the  tele- 
phone not  only  saves  time  which  he  can  devote 
to  his  fields,  but  if  he  needs  a  man  for  a  few 
weeks  or  a  few  days,  the  telephone  gives  him 
the  inside  track  in  finding  some  one.  If  he  has 
a  fence  to  build  or  some  other  odd  job  that  he 
cannot  take  the  time  to  do,  a  moment  at  the 
telephone  will  discover  some  one  in  a  near-by 
village  or  town  who  will  be  glad  to  do  the  job. 
While  it  is  getting  harder  and  harder  to  find 
men  who  will  work  for  a  year  on  a  farm,  the 
telephone  makes  it  easy  to  get  transient  help 
just  when  you  need  it  without  losing  or  hunt- 
ing for  it. 

In  a  hundred  other  ways  the  telephone  saves 
time  and  helps  to  keep  things  going,  thus  swell- 
ing the  profits  for  the  year.  It  saves  the  hard- 


THE  TELEPHONE  229 

worked  farm-horses  many  a  drive  when  they 
need  the  rest.  When  stock  gets  sick  the  farmer 
can  call  the  veterinary  quickly  and  thus  per- 
haps save  the  most  valuable  of  his  animals. 
When  the  threshers  are  in  the  neighbourhood 
he  can  step  to  the  telephone  and  make  the 
needed  arrangement  for  ' '  change ' '  of  work,  hire 
extra  help  for  haying  or  harvesting,  order  pro- 
visions down  town,  get  market  reports,  and 
save  time  in  a  thousand  different  ways. 

"A  friend  in  need  is  a  friend  indeed,"  and 
perhaps  the  greatest  service  the  telephone  can 
render  is  in  the  time  of  sickness.  Medical  at- 
tention can  be  summoned,  more  than  half  the 
time  saved, — in  many  instances  a  precious  life. 
When  accidents  happen  or  a  fire  breaks  out, 
the  telephone  affords  assistance  that  could  be 
obtained  in  no  other  way,  and  one  such  service 
may  easily  repay  its  cost  many  hundred  times 
over. 

Before  hauling  produce  to  town,  the  farmer 
can  know  just  what  the  dealer  is  paying;  he 
doesn't  have  to  go  it  blind,  and  take  the  dealer's 
prices  or  haul  his  stuff  back  home.  He  knows 
that  he  has  the  advantage.  He  is  in  a  position 


230  ELECTEICITY 

to  buy  when  prices  are  down  and  sell  when 
prices  are  up. 

As  a  Business  Getter. — The  telephone  is  the 
connecting  link  between  city,  town  and  country. 
In  a  social  sense  alone  it  is  worth  all  it  costs. 
News  of  the  neighbourhood  flashes  across  the 
wires  before  it  gets  cold.  It  helps  to  keep  the 
boys  and  girls  contented  at  home.  They  are 
no  longer  isolated  from  the  society  of  other 
young  folks,  and  farm-life  is  not  the  dry  drudg- 
ery of  the  non-telephone  times.  The  farmer 
thus  owes  it  to  his  family  to  have  a  telephone 
installed.  Many  times  he  is  away  from  home 
and  his  wife  and  children  are  in  peril  of  the 
encroachments  of  tramps  and  other  offensive 
characters,  but  by  means  of  the  telephone,  they 
can  immediately  summon  assistance,  which 
could  not  be  obtained  in  any  other  way. 

Petty  thieving  can  be  often  detected  and  in- 
formation sent  speeding  of  news  of  any  outra- 
geous conduct  through  the  neighbourhood.  Pil- 
fering has  almost  entirely  disappeared  where 
telephones  are  in  general  use. 

The  advantages  of  the  telephone  on  the  farm 
are  so  numerous  and  valuable  that  it  is  difficult 


THE  TELEPHONE  231 

to  appreciate  them  at  their  real  worth.  With 
its  advent  comes  new  companionship,  new  life, 
new  possibility,  new  relations  and  attachments 
for  the  old  farm,  by  both  the  young  and  old. 
Lonesomeness  is  banished  by  the  privileges  of 
city  life  being  added  through  the  telephone,  and 
the  influx  of  country  folks  to  the  city  has  been 
changed  to  an  exodus  from  city  to  farming  com- 
munities, even  to  a  much  greater  degree  than 
people  who  have  not  investigated  realise. 

The  advantages  of  the  farm  telephone  can- 
not be  overestimated,  because  their  practical 
utility  is  unlimited,  and  where  installed,  they 
are  never  taken  out.  The  farmer  cannot  keep 
house  without  one,  after  once  learning  the  con- 
venience, time-saving  and  money-saving  fea- 
tures. 

Telephone  Lines. — A  metallic  telephone  cir- 
cuit consists  of  two  wires  on  a  single  set  of 
poles,  one  for  the  outgoing  current  and  one  for 
the  return  current.  Metallic  circuits  are  al- 
ways preferable  to  grounded  lines,  as  the  serv- 
ice is  superior,  being  free  from  noise  caused 
by  earth-currents,  and  the  liability  of  damage 
to  apparatus  by  lightning  is  much  less. 


232  ELECTRICITY 

Where  several  metallic  circuits  are  run  on 
the  same  set  of  poles,  they  should  be  trans- 
posed, that  is,  the  wires  of  circuits  should  be 
crossed  and  recrossed,  which  is  done  to  pre- 
vent cross-talk  between  the  different  circuits. 
Cross-talk  may  be  explained  as  follows :  When 
two  telephones  are  in  use,  the  subscribers  on 
all  the  other  lines  on  that  set  of  poles  can  hear 
the  conversation  going  on,  although  there  may 
be  no  metallic  connections,  and  if  the  lines  are 
run  for  a  considerable  distance  on  the  same  set 
of  poles,  this  cross-talk  would  be  so  strong  as 
to  be  objectionable.  No  definite  rule  can  be 
given  for  this  crossing  and  recrossing,  as  differ- 
ent schemes  are  required  for  various  numbers 
of  lines  on  a  one-pole  route. 

A  grounded  line  consists  of  one  wire  on  the 
poles  and  using  earth  for  the  return  path  of  the 
current.  Grounded  lines  prove  quite  satisfac- 
tory where  there  are  no  trolley  wires,  electric 
light  circuit  or  telegraph  wires  running  very 
close  to  the  line.  If  such  conditions  as  these 
are  encountered,  a  grounded  line  will  pick  up  so 
much  noise  from  the  other  lines  as  to  make  it 
almost  impossible  to  hear  distinctly,  but  this 


THE  TELEPHONE  233 

can  be  overcome  by  running  a  metallic  circuit. 

Where  a  great  many  lines  are  run  on  the 
same  set  of  poles,  and  where  a  ground-return 
will  not  be  satisfactory,  a  common  return  wire 
is  sometimes  used.  This  style  of  construction 
was  at  one  time  of  very  common  practice  with 
telephone  exchanges.  It  consists  in  running- 
several  wires  on  the  same  set  of  poles  and  using 
one  larger  wire  for  the  common  return.  In 
the  common  return  line,  only  one  ground  is 
made,  this  being  located  at  the  central  office, 
and  it  is  important  that  an  extra  good  ground- 
ing should  be  made.  Of  course  the  number  of 
instruments  that  are  to  be  used  on  a  line  de- 
termines to  a  large  extent  which  is  the  most 
practical  kind  to  build,  a  metallic  grounded  or 
common  return  line. 

After  the  conditions  are  known  and  the  kind 
of  line  decided  upon,  the  first  thing  that  be- 
comes necessary  in  the  building  of  a  line  is  its 
proper  location.  This  is  usually  accomplished 
by  starting  from  an  initial  point  and  measur- 
ing off  distances  where  poles  are  to  be  set,  lo- 
cating them  by  stakes  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
the  measurements.  The  line  should  be  built  as 


234  ELECTEICITY 

straight  as  possible,  avoiding  sharp  turns  and 
angles. 

Telephone  Poles. — Cedar  or  chestnut  poles 
are  the  best.  Poles  should  be  peeled  and  the 
top  end  roofed  so  that  the  water  will  run  off 
instead  of  collecting  at  the  top  and  decaying 
the  pole.  The  length  and  size  of  the  pole  de- 
pends entirely  upon  the  kind  of  a  line  that  is 
to  be  built.  It  is  not  well  to  use  poles  with  less 
than  5-inch  tops,  and  6  inches  is  a  better  size. 
The  average  length  of  poles  is  25  feet.  In  some 
instances,  where  no  roads  have  to  be  crossed, 
and  where  one  wire  is  to  be  carried,  20-foot 
poles  can  be  used.  For  a  line  with  one  or  two 
wires  at  least  30  poles  should  be  used  per  mile, 
for  four  or  more  wires,  35  poles  to  the  mile; 
the  more  poles  used  the  shorter  the  stretches 
of  wire,  and  the  less  liable  is  the  wire  to  break. 

Brackets. — Brackets  are  usually  made  of  oak 
and  are  given  two  coats  of  metallic  paint. 
They  have  a  thread  on  the  upper  end  to  which 
is  fastened  the  glass  insulator,  of  a  type  espe- 
cially adapted  to  telephone  work.  Where  only 
one  or  two  wires  are  to  be  carried  on  the  poles, 
brackets  serve  the  purpose  very  satisfactorily. 


THE  TELEPHONE  235 

They  should  be  at  least  18  inches  apart.  The 
upper  bracket  should  be  8  inches  from  the  top 
of  the  pole,  and  the  other  20  inches  below  it  on 
the  opposite  side.  The  bracket  should  be  nailed 
to  the  pole  with  one  50-penny  and  one  20-penny 
nail. 

Cross  Arms. — Where  three  or  more  wires 
are  to  be  run  on  the  same  pole  cross-arms  should 
be  used.  They  are  made  of  sawed  yellow  pine 
painted  with  two  good  coats  of  metallic  paint, 
and  are  of  a  length  to  accommodate  from  two  to 
ten  pins.  The  size  of  the  arm  used  for  tele- 
phone work  is  2%x3%  inches,  bored  for  l1/^ 
inch  pins. 

The  proper  way  to  attach  the  cross-arms  to  the  pole  is  to 
cut  a  recess  about  li  inches  deep,  10  inches  from  the  top, 
and  of  such  width  as  to  cause  a  tight  fit  of  the  arm;  then 
fasten  with  a  machine  bolt,  through  the  arm  and  the  pole, 
with  a  nut  and  washer  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  pole.  Two 
lag  screws  can  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  they  are  not  quite 
as  good.  The  arm  may  be  further  strengthened  by  two  iron 
"cross-arm  braces."  These  usually  consist  of  straight  flat  gal- 
vanised iron  bars  1£  inches  wide  by  |  inch  thick,  varying  in 
length  from  20  to  28  inches.  Holes  are  usually  punched  in 
one  end  for  the  reception  of  Mnch  lag  screws,  and  in  the  other 
end  for  |-inch  carriage  bolts.  On  straight  lines,  where  the 
distances  between  the  poles  are  equal,  the  cross-arm  should  be 
placed  on  alternating  sides  of  the  pole.  On  curves,  the  cross- 
arm  should  be  placed  on  the  poles  so  that  the  strain  of  the 
wire  will  pull  it  against  the  pole;  then  the  strain  of  the  wire 


236  ELECTEICITY 

is  on  the  pole  instead  of  the  bolts.  On  curves  and  corners,  the 
wire  should  be  tied  to  the  side  of  the  insulators  away  from 
the  strain.  The  quickest  way  to  erect  a  line  is  to  do  all  the 
work  on  the  poles,  such  as  attaching  brackets  or  cross-arms, 
before  the  poles  are  set  into  the  holes. 

Lightning  Protection. — Every  tenth  pole 
should  be  equipped  with  a  lightning  rod,  made 
of  No.  9  or  No.  10  wire,  stapled  on  the  side  of 
the  pole  and  attached  every  two  feet  by  %  inch 
galvanised  iron  staples.  The  rod  should  be  ex- 
tended to  the  top  of  the  pole  and  have  two  turns 
under  the  bottom  end  of  the  pole. 

Setting  Poles. — Twenty-five-foot  poles  should 
be  set  at  least  4%  feet  in  depth,  and  on  curves 
six  inches  or  a  foot  deeper.  The  hole  should 
be  large  enough  to  admit  the  pole  without  hew- 
ing or  cutting,  and  to  permit  free  use  of  the 
tamping  and  digging  bar.  The  refilled  earth 
should  be  thoroughly  tamped,  as  it  will  greatly 
lessen  any  trouble  from  poles  pulling  away 
when  placed  under  strain.  The  soil  should  be 
firmly  packed  around  the  poles  to  a  height  of 
at  least  12  inches  above  the  ground.  Every 
corner  pole  and  every  pole  not  in  line  should  be 
guyed  before  the  wire  is  stretched,  or  else  the 
line  will  not  stand  up  properly  and  will  always 


THE  TELEPHONE  237 

be  giving  more  or  less  trouble.  The  guying 
can  be  done  by  a  brace-pole,  or  by  running  a 
No.  6  or  No.  9  wire  from  the  top  of  the  pole  to 
an  anchor  which  should  be  set  in  the  ground 
some  four  feet,  or  by  running  a  guy-wire  from 
the  top  of  the  pole  to  a  suitable  guy  stub. 
Single  guys  to  anchor  should  be  used  whenever 
possible  and  set  in  the  line  of  the  resultant 
strain  from  the  line  wires.  When  it  becomes 
necessary  to  raise  the  guy-strand  to  a  sufficient 
height  to  clear  obstacles  or  cross  the  highway, 
guy-stubs  should  be  used.  The  poles  should  not 
be  guyed  to  fences  or  trees,  as  the  former  are 
not  permanent,  and  the  swaying  of  the  trees 
will  break  the  wire. 

Telephone  Wire. — No.  12  B.  S.  galvanised 
iron  telephone  wire  is  the  proper  wire  to  use 
for  the  telephone  circuits.  It  will  give  the  most 
satisfactory  results,  and  is  by  far  the  cheapest 
in  the  end.  It  should  be  stretched  tight,  leav- 
ing not  more  than  10  inches  sag  between  the 
poles.  The  wire  clamp  consists  of  a  clamp 
which  has  an  automatic  arrangement  whereby 
the  wire  is  automatically  gripped  when  a  strain 
is  exerted  on  the  pulley-blocks  to  which  the 


238  ELECTEICITY 

clamp  may  be  fastened.  The  clamp  releases 
automatically  as  soon  as  the  strain  on  it  is  re- 
leased. Iron  or  steel  fence  wire  may  be  used, 
but  it  is  very  hard,  or  high  in  resistance,  and 
therefore  cuts  down  the  talking  efficiency,  and 
not  being  so  well  galvanised,  rusts  in  a  short 
time.  Its  cost  per  pound  is  somewhat  cheaper 
than  galvanised  wire,  but  the  fact  that  it  takes 
a  greater  number  of  pounds  of  wire  to  reach 
a  mile  than  the  No.  12  B.  S.  galvanised  iron 
telephone  wire  makes  the  total  cost  greater. 
For  example,  No.  10  steel  fence  wire  costs  3^ 
cents  per  pound,  and  one  mile  weighs  260 
pounds.  This  brings  the  cost  per  mile  to  $9.10. 
The  No.  12  B,  S.  galvanised  iron  telephone  wire 
costs  4%  cents  per  pound,  and  there  are  165 
pounds  to  a  mile,  making  the  cost  $6.80  per  mile. 
Insulation. — The  insulation  of  the  telephone 
line  means  its  isolation  from  anything  that 
would  tend  to  conduct  the  electricity  direct  to 
earth  instead  of  passing  through  the  telephones 
in  such  proportionate  quantities  as  it  should. 
The  insulation  of  the  telephone  line  should,  of 
course,  be  as  good  as  it  is  possible  to  make  it. 
Telephone  lines  must  not  be  allowed  to  touch 


THE  TELEPHONE  239 

or  come  in  contact  with  tree  tops,  for  the  limbs 
and  leaves  would  tend  to  ground  the  lines,  and 
the  swaying  of  the  trees  might,  in  some  cases, 
break  the  wire.  Where  telephone  lines  run 
through  wooded  sections,  it  is  well  to  trim  off 
the  tops  of  all  the  trees. 

Making  Connections. — To  make  connections 
place  the  telephone  on  the  wall  as  near  the  out- 
side line  wire  as  possible.  Kubber-covered, 
weather-proof  copper  wire  should  be  used  to 
run  from  the  telephone  to  the  line  wire  and  to 
the  ground.  In  damp  places  rubber-covered 
wire  should  also  be  used.  In  single-wire 
grounded  circuits,  avoid  making  the  ground- 
wire  extending  from  the  instrument  to  the 
ground  any  longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary, 
as  any  unnecessary  turns  in  it  have  a  tendency 
to  cut  down  the  efficiency  of  the  line,  since  thus 
an  additional  amount  of  resistance  is  intro- 
duced. Either  single-conductor  or  double-con- 
ductor, rubber-covered,  weather-proof  copper 
wire  is  the  most  durable  and  satisfactory  to 
run  from  the  instrument  to  the  line  wires.  Al- 
ways take  the  covering  from  the  wire  where 
it  goes  under  the  binding  posts  and  scrape  the 


240  ELECTEICITY 

wire  bright  and  clean.  The  wire  leading  from 
the  telephone  line  to  the  telephone  instrument 
should  extend  from  the  nearest  pole  to  a  por- 
celain knob,  fastened  to  the  outside  of  the 
house  near  where  the  telephone  is  mounted. 
If  the  nearest  pole  to  the  house  should  be  over 
100  feet  away,  it  is  advisable  to  run  this  line  to 
an  oak  bracket  with  pony  glass  insulator  in- 
stead of  to  the  porcelain  knob.  Insulated  saddle 
staples  should  be  used  to  fasten  the  wires  to 
the  walls  of  the  house. 

Ground  Connections. — The  most  common 
practice  of  making  ground  connection  is  to  take 
a  sharp  iron  rod  seven  feet  long  by  half  an  inch 
in  diameter,  having  a  hole  about  three  inches 
from  the  top  end,  and  drive  the  rod  into  the 
earth  in  some  damp  place  so  that  enough  of 
the  rod  sticks  out  of  the  ground  to  attach  the 
ground  wire,  which  is  done  by  inserting  the  wire 
through  the  hole  near  the  top  and  making  sev- 
eral turns  around  the  rod  and  then  solder- 
ing carefully.  Care  should  be  taken  to  drive 
the  rod  into  the  earth  in  a  place  where  the  earth 
is  damp  continually,  and  not  for  a  few  months 


THE  TELEPHONE  241 

in  the  year.  The  difficulty  in  driving  this  rod 
can  greatly  be  overcome  by  making  a  hollow 
in  the  ground,  filling  it  with  water  and  letting 
it  stand  for  a  while.  D'o  not  try  to  use  a  piece 
of  iron  wire  for  ground,  as  it  will  not  prove 
satisfactory.  Another  good  method  of  making 
a  ground  is  to  solder  a  copper  wire  to  a  copper 
plate,  dig  a  hole  about  six  feet  deep  in  some 
damp  place,  place  the  plate  in  the  bottom,  cover 
with  charcoal,  empty  in  a  few  pails  of  water 
and  cover  with  earth.  Too  much  attention  can- 
not be  given  to  this  matter  of  making  ground 
which,  if  slighted,  will  cause  the  strongest  and 
best  telephone  made  to  give  no  better  results 
than  a  much  weaker  telephone  on  a  system  hav- 
ing good  ground. 

Inspection. — Telephones  not  subject  to  reg- 
ular inspection  by  an  experienced  man,  should 
be  equipped  with  dry  batteries,  as  they  require 
no  attention  during  their  life,  are  cleaner  and 
do  not  freeze  except  under  rare  conditions. 
They  cannot  be  re-charged.  They  will  last  six 
months  to  one  year  and  a  half,  all  depending 
upon  the  work  the  instrument  is  required  to  per- 


242  ELECTEICITY 

form.  When  exhausted,  they  are  replaced  by 
new  batteries,  installed  by  the  owner  of  the 
telephone  without  any  difficulty. 

Wet  batteries  need  careful  attention.  They 
should  not  be  more  than  three-fourths  full  of 
solution  after  the  zinc  and  carbon  are  placed 
in  the  jar.  Do  not  use  any  more  sal  ammoniac 
than  will  dissolve  in  the  water  placed  in  the 
glass  jar.  While  the  sal  ammoniac  is  being 
poured  into  the  water,  stir  the  solution  briskly 
with  a  stick.  When  it  refuses  to  dissolve,  no 
greater  strength  of  solution  may  be  obtained. 
The  use  of  more  sal  ammoniac  is  detrimental  to 
the  solution,  and  a  waste  of  material.  If  the 
outside  of  the  jar  and  the  tops  of  the  zinc  and 
carbon  become  wet  with  the  solution,  wipe  them 
dry  with  a  cloth.  Do  not  leave  them  wet,  as  it 
will  corrode  the  connections.  Periodically,  a 
small  amount  of  salts  may  be  dissolved  in  the 
solution  which  keeps  the  batteries  up  to  their 
highest  efficiency.  As  in  the  case  of  the  dry 
cells,  the  life  depends  upon  the  amount  of  the 
work  the  battery  has  to  perform.  All  party 
line  batteries  should  always  be  connected  in 


THE  TELEPHONE  243 

series,  that  is,  a  carbon  of  one  battery  should  be 
connected  to  the  zinc  of  the  other. 

All  that  is  necessary  for  lightning  protection 
is  to  provide  an  easy  path  for  atmospheric  elec- 
tricity to  reach  the  ground.  This  consists  of 
two  blocks  of  carbon  with  a  strip  of  mica  be- 
tween them.  In  a  metallic  bridging  line,  the 
line  wires  are  connected  to  the  outside  posts 
and  the  ground  wire  is  connected  to  the  middle 
posts.  These  carbons  are  separated  by  a  strip 
of  mica  which  prevents  the  ordinary  telephone 
currents  from  escaping,  which  would  make  a 
short  circuit,  but  which  affords  practically  no 
resistance  to  a  discharge  of  lightning  which 
passes  through  it  into  the  ground.  After  a 
storm  is  over  it  is  often  found  that  dust  has 
collected  between  the  blocks  of  carbon.  This 
would  allow  an  ordinary  telephone  current  to 
pass  through,  making  an  easier  path  than  the 
telephone.  The  carbon  block  should  therefore, 
be  slipped  out  and  wiped  off  thoroughly.  Addi- 
tional protection  may  be  furnished  by  using  a 
carbon  and  fuse  arrester  on  metallic  grounded 
circuits.  These  are  usually  placed  on  the  in- 


244  ELECTEICITY 

side  wall  where  the  wires  enter  the  house.  On 
some  farm  lines  a  knife  switch  is  placed  in  the 
line  wire  above  the  telephone,  so  that  the  tele- 
phone can  be  cut  off  from  the  circuit  entirely 
during  an  electric  storm.  The  only  objection  to 
the  use  of  this  switch  is  that  if  one  forgets  to 
close  it  after  a  storm  the  telephone  will  not 
work  and  no  one  can  call  you — in  fact,  if  it  is 
not  properly  connected,  it  would  put  the  entire 
line  out  of  service. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What    are    the    advantages    of    telephones    in    rural    dis- 

tricts? 

2.  Why  is  the  telephone  necessary? 

3.  What  are  the  earnings  of  the  average  farm? 

4.  How  can  the  farmer  increase  his  business? 

5.  Describe  the  telephone  system. 

6.  Describe  the  construction  of  the  telephone  installation,  such 

as  poles,  conductors,  ground  wire,  etc. 

7.  Describe  the  method  of  inspection. 


Electric  Curling  Iron  Heater. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
ELECTEIG  POWER  IN  IRRIGATION 

BY  the  help  of  a  suitable  electrically  driven 
pump,  water  for  irrigation  may  be  raised  to 
practically  any  desired  height.  As  this  water 
is  best  distributed  during  the  night,  the  pumps 
may  operate  at  this  time  to  advantage,  because 
the  usual  day  load  has  then  fallen  off.  By  this 
means  a  more  even  power-load  is  put  upon  the 
distributing  system  at  a  time  when  it  can  be 
readily  carried.  The  public  companies  sell 
power  at  an  especially  low  rate  for  irrigation 
purposes  in  order  to  induce  a  large  consump- 
tion. 

The  Gravity  System. — Large  sums  are  yearly 
spent  for  irrigation  purposes,  and  also  on  wa- 
terways regulation,  but  in  nearly  every  case 
without  consideration  of  a  combination  system, 
wherein  electric  power  could  advantageously  be 
generated.  In  irrigation,  the  water-level  of  the 

245 


246  ELECTEICITY 

river  is  usually  raised,  in  order  to  get  sufficient 
head  so  that  the  water  to  the  fields  can  be  dis- 
tributed by  gravity,  and  the  head  in  most  in- 
stances is  sufficient  to  operate  the  necessary  ma- 
chines for  the  generation  of  electric  energy, 
which  might  advantageously  be  used  for  farm- 
ing purposes  and  rural  industries  when  the  wa- 
ter was  not  needed. 

The  same  practice  applies  to  river  regulation. 
There  are  a  number  of  examples  in  Switzerland, 
and  more  particularly  in  Germany,  where  large 
central  stations  are  enabled  by  proper  engineer- 
ing to  utilise  the  energy  of  a  river.  Advan- 
tage can  also  be  taken  of  the  flow  of  water  in 
drainage  canals  by  installing  power  plants  at 
suitable  intervals. 

Amount  of  Water  Required. — The  acreage 
which  may  be  watered  by  any  given  supply 
varies  greatly  in  different  localities  and  for  dif- 
ferent crops.  Fields  in  some  regions  need  only 
one  flooding  each  summer,  while  in  the  most  un- 
favourable places  water  must  be  supplied  at 
least  once  per  week.  Shallow  soil,  over  clay 
or  hardpan,  holds  its  water  too  near  the  surface, 
permitting  rapid  evaporation.  Loose ,  sandy 


IRRIGATION  247 

subsoil  permits  the  water  to  sink  or  to  pass  to 
other  substrata,  slightly  benefiting  adjacent 
fields  to  the  detriment  of  the  field  irrigator. 


Fig.    49.      Motor-operated   pump   for    irrigation. 

Deep  sandy  loam  soil,  with  clay  or  hardpan 
subsoil,  gives  the  best  returns  for  a  given 
amount  of  water. 

The  crop  itself  in  an  irrigated  field  absorbs 
very  little  water,  but  to  enable  this  small  supply 
to  be  constantly  available  to  the  plants,  a  liberal 
supply  must  be  furnished  to  replace  that 
which  is  lost  by  surface  evaporation.  To  re- 
place surface  evaporation,  three  to  seven 
gallons  per  minute  are  required  for  each  acre 
in  semi-arid  regions,  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty 


248  ELECTEICITY 

gallons  per  minute  per  acre  in  the  arid  regions. 
Surfaces  covered  with  alfalfa  or  similar  dense 
growth  require  less  water  than  crops  planted 
in  rows  with  bare  ground  between,  unless  as 
a  result  of  cultivation  a  layer  of  loose  earth 
several  inches  deep  covers  the  surface  and 
lessens  the  evaporative  effect  of  the  atmosphere. 

Alfalfa  south  of  the  fortieth  degree  of  lati- 
tude, and  red  clover  north,  are  the  most  profit- 
able forage  and  hay  crops  on  irrigated  farms. 
Both  require  a  liberal  supply  of  water  the  first 
year,  less  the  second,  and  very  little  thereafter ; 
consequently  when  the  first  field  is  a  year  old 
another  may  be  planted,  and  so  on  until  the  acre- 
age will  take  up  the  entire  water  supply.  Fields 
well  flooded  in  winter  will  need  less  water  in 
the  spring  and  summer,  and  a  much  larger  area 
may  be  irrigated  with  a  given  amount  of  wa- 
ter than  if  spring  and  summer  flooding  alone 
is  practised. 

Motor-driven  pumps  are  preferably  located 
in  small  houses,  scattered  over  the  field  to  be 
irrigated.  They  may  lift  the  water  directly 
into  elevated  reservoirs,  or  preferably  pump 
the  water  directly  into  trenches. 


IEEIGATION  249 

Water  Distribution. — Where  the  fields  can  be 
levelled  off,  embanked,  and  main  or  feeder 
'ditches  run  on  the  embankment  above  the  level 
of  the  fields,  the  flooding  system  may  be  nsed. 
As  not  less  than  three  inches  of  water  should 
be  run  at  once,  the  field  should  be  divided  into 
plots  having  four  times  the  area  of  the  reser- 
voir for  each  available  foot  of  its  depth. 

Furrow  irrigation  on  small  plantations  seems  to  be  the 
favourite  system.  Furrows  are  run  between  rows  five  to  fif- 
teen feet  apart.  If  the  field  is  not  level,  run  the  furrows  in 
such  direction  as  to  keep  each  furrow  nearly  on  a  level  through- 
out its  length.  When  the  main  ditch  is  flooded,  the  bank 
opposite  each  furrow  is  broken  down,  allowing  the  furrows  to 
fill  successively.  In  orchards,  the  furrows  are  made  in  cir- 
cles six  or  eight  feet  in  diameter,  around  each  tree.  This 
brings  the  water  well  over  the  roots,  but  not  against  the  trunk 
of  the  tree,  which  is  harmful.  The  small  circular  ditches  may 
be  fed  by  main  ditches  between  every  alternate  row.  Where 
great  economy  of  water  is  needed,  large  tiles  are  sunk  into  the 
ground  near  each  tree,  or  twelve  or  sixteen  feet  apart  in  a 
vegetable  garden,  the  water  being  led  into  these  tiles  by  means 
of  a  ditch  or  hose.  This  system  conducts  the  water  well  below 
the  surface,  preventing  much  of  the  loss  by  evaporation. 

The  source  of  water  supply  may  be  either 
surface  water  from  the  streams,  or  may  be 
ground  water,  secured  by  sinking  wells. 

Motor-Driven  Pumps. — Irrigation  by  gravity 
systems  can,  of  course,  be  accomplished  only  in 


250  ELECTKICITY 

those  favoured  localities  which  have  a  natural 
source  of  water-supply  at  a  level  higher  than 
the  tract  under  cultivation.  Such  locations 
have  long  ago  been  appropriated,  so  that  ex- 
tensions are  dependent  upon  some  source  of 
power  for  pumping.  Long-distance  transmis- 
sion-lines, carrying  power  from  the  mountain 
streams  and  waterfalls  over  the  intervening  dry 
plains  to  the  growing  cities  and  towns  of  Col- 
orado, Nevada,  California,  Oregon,  Washington 
and  Idaho,  have  made  possible  the  use  of  elec- 
tric motors  for  the  operation  of  pumps  for  irri- 
gation purposes  in  those  States.  In  fact,  the 
ease  and  economy  with  which  electricity  can  be 
transmitted  over  wide  areas  and  used  to  drive 
motors,  make  electric  pumping  in  many  cases 
preferable  to  the  gravity  system.  The  pumps 
can  be  in  comparatively  small  units,  each  sup- 
plying a  local  area.  The  distributing  ditches 
may  be  small,  thus  leaving  a  maximum  area  for 
crops,  and  the  water-supply  to  each  area  is  al- 
ways under  perfect  control.  There  is  thus  a 
minimum  danger  of  broken  ditches  and  flooded 
crops,  such  as  sometimes  occurs  with  large 
ditches. 


IBEIGATION  251 

The  sage-brush-covered  plains  of  these  states,  when  prop- 
erly cultivated-  and  flooded  with  water,  produce  the  wonderful 
grapes,  melons,  peaches,  cherries,  apples,  strawberries,  etc., 
which  are  now  a  common  sight  in  the  markets  of  this  coun- 
try. Land  which  less  than  a  decade  ago  could  be  purchased 
for  from  fifty  cents  to  two  dollars  an  acre  in  the  valley  of  the 
Columbia,  is  now  held  at  $150  an  acre  for  alfalfa  hay  land, 
producing  three  crops  a  year  and  averaging  four  to  nine  tons 
an  acre  at  $10  per  ton.  Irrigation  has  brought  these  lands 
before  investors,  large  and  small,  from  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, and  where  ten  years  ago  individuals  held  vast  areas  of 
this  cheap  land,  the  rising  values  have  now  reversed  such  con- 
ditions, and  division  and  sub-division  is  constantly  going  on. 
Intensive  cultivation  is  the  secret  of  successful  irrigation  to 
the  man  of  moderate  desires,  and  with  the  same  amount  of 
attention  and  care  bestowed  upon  the  land,  ten  to  twenty 
acres  or  even  less  of  good  irrigated  land  will  produce  more 
than  larger  areas  in  the  East,  particularly  when  devoted  to 
the  raising  of  fruits. 

The  results  obtained  by  this  intensive  method  of  the  culti- 
vation of  small  unit  areas  of  land,  have  been  the  greatest  fac- 
tor in  opening  up  the  various  tracts  of  irrigable  lands  in  the 
Pacific  Coast  States.  Organised  companies  have  taken  up 
tracts  of  land  in  units  from  160  to  6000  acres  and  have  di- 
vided them  into  small  tracts  of  5,  10,  20  and  40  acres  each 
and  sold  them  to  homeseekers,  with  water  rights  at  prices 
ranging  from  $100  to  $600  per  acre,  the  land  being  in  its 
original  prairie  form  but  with  the  water  delivered  thereto. 

Irrigation  by  Electric  Power. — A  concrete  ex- 
ample of  an  operating  company  in  the  upper 
Columbia  Biver  Valley,  as  described  in  The 
Electric  Journal,  February,  1911,  may  be  of 
interest.  This  company  has  taken  a  160-acre 
unit  of  sage-brush  land,  platted  it  into  five-  and 


252  ELECTEICITY 

ten-acre  tracts  and  supplied  it  with  water  under 
a  pressure  system. 

The  pumping  station  consists  of  a  40-hp. 
three-phase,  60-cycle,  2300-volt,  shunt-wound, 
secondary  induction  motor,  directly  connected 
to  two  3%-inch  and  one  5-inch  centrifugal 
pumps.  These  pumps  are  so  arranged  that  they 
may  be  run  in  single,  multiple  or  series  stages 
to  supply  water  for  the  different  heads  to  be 
pumped  against.  They  perform  the  following 
duty: 

250  gallons  per  minute  to  a  head  of  190  feet,  all  three  pumps 
in  series; 

500  gallons  per  minute  to  a  head  of  160  feet,  two  small 
pumps  in  parallel  pumping  into  the  large  unit; 

750  gallons  per  minute  to  a  head  of  110  feet,  the  arrange- 
ment being  the  same  as  with  160  feet  head  but  the  pumps  op- 
erating on  reduced  head  and  picking  up  more  water. 

500  gallons  per  minute  to  a  head  of  55  feet,  the  five-inch 
pump  working  alone  as  a  single  step  pump. 

The  main  discharge  from  the  pumping  is  a 
12-inch  double-riveted  flanged  steel  pipe  1700 
feet  long.  The  lateral  system  is  made  up  of 
galvanised  sheet  steel  pipe  of  various  diameters, 
branching  from  the  main  discharge  line  and 
having  at  intervals  one-inch  stand-pipes  about 
two  feet  long,  with  valves  which  feed  the  water 


IRRIGATION 


253 


into  the  small  ditches.  The  loss  of  water  by 
evaporation  is  thus  minimised,  and  by  means 
of  the  stand-pipes  the  irrigator  is  enabled  to 


Fig.    50.      Sprinkling    system    on    farm    supplied    by    a    motor-operated 
pump  with  remote  control. 

control  the  flow  as  he  works  on  the  distributing 
ditches. 

This  system  proves  more  economical  to  the 
holder  of  the  small  five-  or  ten-acre  tract  than 
would  obtain  if  he  had  to  purchase  an  indi- 
vidual pumping-equipment  for  this  land,  for  the 
Power  and  Land  Company  carries  the  neces- 
sary investment  for  the  electric-substation, 


254  ELECTRICITY 

pumping  stations  and  water-distributing  sys- 
tem, and  although  the  farmer  pays  more  for  an 
acre  of  his  land  under  these  conditions,  the 
terms  of  sale  are  such  as  to  make  it  less  of  a 
financial  burden  than  would  be  the  individual 
unit  pumping  plant. 

In  this  particular  case,  assuming  a  load-factor  of  80  per 
cent,  on  the  pumping  plant  on  24-hour  service,  the  average 
station-load  would  be  about  32  horsepower.  It  would  thus 
be  easy  to  keep  the  mechanical  equipment  in  good  running 
condition,  even  though  the  full  load  of  40  horsepower  might 
be  carried  at  times  for  short  intervals.  Basing  the  power-bill 
at  $7  per  month  per  horsepower  on  the  maximum  demand,  the 
charge  would  be  $280  per  month  as  a  possible  maximum,  or 
$1.75  per  acre  per  month  for  each  160  acres  affected.  The 
water  could  thus  be  delivered  at  a  maximum  cost  of  $17.50 
per  month  for  a  ten-acre  tract  from  a  central  pumping  plant, 
where  an  individual  plant  of,  say,  a  3  horsepower  unit,  would 
require  a  monthly  charge  at  a  higher  rate,  besides  the  main- 
tenance, attention  and  cash  investment. 

These  figures,  of  course,  are  rough,  as  the 
cost  of  power  differs  materially  in  different  lo- 
calities, but  they  indicate  in  a  general  way  the 
advantage  secure^  by  the  small  owner  in  get- 
ting his  water  from  a  central  station  as  con- 
trasted with  putting  in  the  small  individual 
unit.  The  tendency  is  increasing,  therefore,  to- 
wards the  installation  of  larger  pumping-units 
to  supply  sub-divided  tracts  of  land,  both  on 


IEEIGATION  255 

account  of  the  economy  in  stepdown-transform- 
ing  stations  in  larger  units,  and  for  the  reason 
that  where  power  is  purchased  the  large  sizes 
of  pumping-equipment  offer  more  opportunities 
to  make  the  installation  along  good  engineering 
lines,  and  to  build  the  station  and  equip  it  with 
machinery  of  high  class  manufacture,  reliability 
and  efficiency. 

The  hydroelectric  transmission  companies  are  naturally  as- 
sisting in  this  movement,  as  the  irrigation  projects  through 
the  country  traversed  by  these  trunk-lines  form  a  natural  and 
very  desirable  market  for  power.  Many  of  the  larger  projects 
have  substantial  impounding  reservoirs  which  catch  the  tail- 
water  from  their  stations  at  a  higher  elevation  than  the  irri- 
gated valley,  and  from  which  the  water  is  distributed  under 
pressure  to  the  towns,  orchards  and  fields  below.  Such  a  reser- 
voir is  a  part  of  the  system  of  the  Improvement  Company  at 
Clarkston,  Washington,  which  distributes  water  for  irrigat- 
ing purposes  under  gravity  pressure  to  a  considerable  area 
surrounding  these  cities.  At  the  same  time,  by  carrying  the 
first  part  of  their  48-inch  wood-stave  pipe-line  around  the  hills 
at  a  considerable  altitude,  a  head  of  475  feet  is  made  avail- 
able for  their  3000  horsepower  hydroelectric  generating  sta- 
tion, located  on  Asotin  Creek,  six  miles  above  the  town. 
Power  is  thus  made  available  for  lights  and  industrial  uses 
and  also  for  pumping  water  for  irrigation  purposes  where 
it  is  difficult  to  supply  gravity  pressure.  The  water  in  the 
main  flume  is  at  a  sufficient  pressure  when  it  reaches  the 
town  of  Clarkston  to  furnish  a  head  of  250  feet  to  a  400-kw. 
generating-station  located  just  above  the  town.  The  tail- 
water  from  this  station  is  impounded  in  a  reservoir  for  grav- 
ity irrigation  on  the  lower  levels,  water  being  taken  from 
the  main  flume  at  the  higher  levels.  This  company  has  in  all 


256  ELECTRICITY 

seven  miles  of  48-inch,  four  miles  of  40-inch,  two  miles  of 
36-inch,  and  one  mile  of  30-inch  pipe  line.  The  two  hydro- 
electric power  stations,  operating  in  conjunction  with  a  500- 
kw.  steam-turbine  auxiliary  station,  furnish  power  to  the 
towns  of  Lewiston,  Clarkston,  Asotin,  Genessee  and  Moscow, 
through  a  total  of  over  50  miles  of  transmission  line  at  45,000 
volts. 

The  alfalfa  range  of  about  thirty  miles  in  the  Eden  Orchard 
Tracts  was  sage-brush  land  four  years  ago  at  $20  per  acre. 
When  the  water  was  put  on  the  land  two  years  later,  it  im- 
mediately became  worth  $100  per  acre. 

Irrigation  has  produced  these  changes,  and 
electricity  has  become  the  principal  factor  in 
developing  and  making  accessible  these  vast 
arid  tracts,  which  are  becoming  rapidly  trans- 
formed into  gardens,  orchards,  towns  and  cities, 
with  inter-connecting  interurban  systems,  elec- 
tric lights  and  telephones  and  all  modern  con- 
veniences. 

California  in  very  recent  years  has  made 
enormous  strides  agriculturally,  due  largely  to 
electric  irrigation  systems.  The  largest  com- 
pany in  this  field  and  one  of  the  largest  of  its 
kind  in  the  world  is  the  Pacific  Gas  and  Electric 
Company,  operating  in  central  California.  It 
has  developed  this  branch  of  engineering  to  a 
high  degree,  and  has  installed  great  numbers 
of  electric  irrigation  plants  which  are  supplied 


IBEIGATION 


257 


by  its  service  lines.     This  company's  reports 
contain  interesting  drawings  and  views  of  some 
of  its  installations  and  indicate  the  character  of 
the  service  it  performs. 
Pumping  Plants. — The  type  of  pumping  plant 


Fig.  51.  Pumping  plant  of  Snake  River  Irrigation  Company's  plant, 
southern  Idaho.  This  plant  irrigates  approximately  15,000  acres. 
The  equipment  consists  of  one  30,  two  20  and  two  16-inch  centrif- 
ugal pumps,  lifting  the  water  57,  108  and  145  feet,  respectively. 
Another  pumping  plant  of  this  company  irrigates  48,000  acres. 

most  generally  installed  is  a  centrifugal  pump 
directly  connected  to  an  electric  motor  and  set 
in  a  pit  near  the  water-level.  Centrifugal 
pumps  are  built  in  two  styles,  vertical  and  hori- 


258  ELECTRICITY 

zontal,  each  to  meet  certain  conditions.  A 
good  centrifugal  pump  will  draw  water  as  far 
as  a  plunger  pump,  or  about  twenty-eight  feet, 
but  will  operate  with  much  less  power  when 
set  near  the  water-level.  For  this  reason  pits 
are  usually  dug  with  the  floor  at  or  near  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  well  when  the  pump 
is  not  running.  These  pits  may  be  lined  with 
concrete  or  boarded  with  redwood.  The  pit  is 
covered  by  a  house,  frequently  built  with  a  wood 
frame  and  with  sides  and  roof  of  corrugated 
iron. 

An  important  feature  in  drilling  a  well  is  developing  the 
water  supply.  When  the  perforated  casing  is  landed  in  the 
water-bearing  strata,  or  the  casing  punctured,  whichever 
method  is  used,  it  is  important  that  the  largest  reservoir  pos- 
sible be  formed  in  the  water  zones.  This  is  done  by  pumping 
out  the  sand  and  gravel  around  the  pipe.  If  done  carefully, 
a  large  saucer-shaped  cavity,  with  the  casing  passing  through 
its  centre,  is  formed.  If  not  carefully  done,  the  upper  strata 
may  cave  and  greatly  reduce,  or  entirely  prevent,  the  water 
flow.  Where  a  well  has  been  properly  developed  it  will  make 
but  little  sand  afterward,  thus  reducing  wear  on  the  pump 
and  making  sand  pumping  unnecessary.  The  pit  for  a  hori- 
zontal pump  should  be  large  enough  when  finished  to  allow 
at  least  two  feet  between  any  of  the  machinery  and  the  wall. 
At  one  side  of  the  pump  enough  space  should  be  allowed  to 
remove  either  pump  or  motor  from  the  base. 

Centrifugal  Pumps. — As  a  centrifugal  pump 
will  not  throw  water  until  the  casing  is  full  of 


IRRIGATION  259 

water,  or,  in  other  words,  will  not  prime  itself, 
some  means  must  be  provided  for  doing  this. 
A  small  hand-pump  is  usually  installed  for  this 
work.  If  a  foot-valve  is  used,  priming  may  be 
done  by  pouring  water  down  the  discharge-pipe. 
If  a  check-valve  is  installed,  a  priming-pump 
must  be  used.  The  proper  place  to  connect  a 
priming-pump  is  at  the  highest  part  of  the 
pump-casing.  One  of  the  most  common  faults 
in  starting  a  pump  is  its  becoming  l l  air  bound. ' ' 
Be  sure  every  bit  of  air  can  be  pumped  out 
of  the  casing  and  suction-pipe  by  the  priming- 
pump. 

Vertical  pumps  are  usually  installed  where 
the  ground  water  is  so  far  below  the  surface 
that  the  expense  of  sinking  a  pit  for  a  hori- 
zontal pump  would  be  prohibitive.  Instead 
of  a  pit,  a  shaft  large  enough  to.  pass  the 
pump  is  sunk,  and  the  pump  is  installed 
at  the  bottom  with  the  motor  at  the  sur- 
face. A  timber  frame-work  is  built  in  the 
bottom  of  the  pit  and  a  vertical  frame  extends 
from  top  to  bottom,  carrying  pump  and  shaft- 
ing. At  the  top  a  frame  is  built  to  carry  a 
pulley  or  a  vertical  motor.  Spreader-bars 


260  ELECTRICITY 

should  be  spaced  every  ten  feet  on  the  vertical 
frame,  and  vertical  bearings  attached  to  these 
for  keeping  the  shaft  in  line.  Great  care  must 
be  taken  that  this  shaft  is  kept  in  perfect  align- 
ment. 

If  the  total  head  exceeds  forty  feet  a  check- 
valve  must  be  used.  For  lower  heads  a  foot- 
valve  is  suitable.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  use  suc- 
tion and  discharge  pipes  one  size  larger  than 
the  pump  openings.  A  flared  reducing  fitting 
should  be  used  to  keep  friction  losses  low. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  of  electric  power  in  irrigation? 

2.  What  is  a  gravity-system  in  irrigation? 

3.  How  is  the  water  distributed? 

4.  Describe  the  application  of  motor-driven  pumps. 

5.  How  much  water  approximately  is  required  for  proper  ir- 

rigation under  different  conditions? 

6.  What  type  of  pumps  are  best  adapted  for  irrigation? 

7.  How  should  the  pumps  be  installed? 


CHAPTEE  XV 

ELECTEIC  STIMULATION  OF 
VEGETATION 

THE  possibility  of  increasing  crops  by  elec- 
trical stimulation  is  a  fascinating  subject  and 
one  which  has  occupied  the  attention  of  scien- 
tists since  it  was  discovered  that  seeds  sub- 
jected to  electrical  stimulation  germinated  ear- 
lier than  untreated  seeds.  Tests  have  been 
made  at  various  experimental  studios  here  and 
abroad,  showing  that  both  electric  illumination, 
and  currents  passed  through  the  soil,  increase 
the  rapidity  of  growth  and  also  improve  crops. 
The  action  of  the  electrical  current  in  either 
case  seems  to  be  somewhat  analogous  to  that 
of  a  tonic  in  the  human  body.  The  extent  to 
which  the  electric  currents  may  be  so  utilised 
will  depend  in  each  case  upon  the  character  of 
the  farm,  the  surrounding  conditions  and  the 
weather.  The  principal  process  by  which  elec- 
trical energy  forces  the  growth  of  vegetation 

261 


262  ELECTEICITY 

consists  in  producing  ozone  and  nitrate  com- 
pounds and  forcing  them  into  the  capillary  tubes 
of  the  plants,  when  the  electrical  energy  passes 
from  a  conductor  to  the  ground. 

Applying  Electric  Current. — The  method  of 
applying  electrical  energy  to  force  vegetation  is 
in  general  accordance  with  the  following  sys- 
tem. A  netting  or  a  system  of  copper  wire  is 
supported  over  the  area  under  cultivation,  from 
poles  about  10  feet  high  driven  into  the  ground 
at  regular  intervals.  To  insure  good  results, 
small  barbs  are  woven  into  the  net  or  copper 
wire  with  points  projecting  downwards.  One 
of  the  feed-wires  from  the  machine  furnishing 
the  electrical  energy  is  connected  to  the  net  or 
overhead  wires ;  the  other  is  connected  to  a  con- 
ductor imbedded  in  the  earth  below  the  overhead 
net. 

When  the  machine  is  put  in  action,  an  electri- 
cal current  goes  over  the  net  and  then  passes 
out  of  the  barbed  points  through  the  air  into 
the  ground.  In  passing  through  the  air,  the 
current  causes  ozone  and  nitrous  compounds  in 
gaseous  state  to  be  formed  which  are  carried 
into  the  ground.  The  current  passes  through 


STIMULATION  OF  VEGETATION     263 

the  soil  and  back  to  the  earth  conductor.  Being 
an  alternating  current,  the  reverse  action  then 
takes  place,  the  current  flowing  from  the  earth 
conductor  to  the  net  overhead.  In  doing  so,  the 
chemical  compounds  formed  on  the  previous 
passage,  are  now  forced  up  into  the  capillary 
system  of  the  plants  and  into  the  sap  of  the 
plant.  This  action  corresponds  to  a  tonic  and 
increases  the  growth  of  the  stems,  leaves,  buds, 
etc.  The  quality  of  the  plant  itself  is  improved. 

This  action  of  passing  into  and  out  of  the 
system  completes  or  makes  what  is  known  as  a 
cycle.  The  frequency  or  rapidity  with  which 
these  changes  take  place  must  be  very  high,  500 
to  600  per  second ;  and  the  pressure  of  the  cur- 
rent must  be  from  200,000  to  250,000  volts.  A 
large  machine  does  not  necessarily  mean  a  large 
amount  of  energy,  for  it  is  possible  to  combine 
a  number  of  small  parts  to  form  a  compact  yet 
powerful  machine,  suitable  for  the  purpose. 

Another  system  is  that  of  putting  up  arc- 
lamps  in  the  region  cultivated,  thus  furnishing 
artificial  sunlight,  and  bringing  plants  to  ma- 
turity in  less  time  than  without  the  lamps. 

What  has  been  done  in  this  branch  of  the  en- 


264  ELECTEICITY 

gineering  art,  has  principally  been  in  European 
countries.  The  results  show  that  electric  en- 
ergy does  have  an  advantageous  influence  on 
vegetation,  but  as  yet  it  has  not  reached  the 
stage  of  commercial  availability.  To  cite  a 
prominent  experiment  of  what  has  been  done 
with  electrical  air-current,  that  conducted  by 
Dr.  Pringsheim  in  the  fields  near  Breslau,  Ger- 
many, in  the  summer  of  1902,  is  of  note. 

The  experimental  field  covered  about  1200  sq.  ft.  The  ma- 
chine used  was  driven  by  a  motor  fed  from  a  storage  battery, 
and  the  results  in  per  cent,  of  the  effect  of  the  influence  upon 
the  increased  growth  of  the  plans  under  experiment  were: 
Strawberries  50;  carrots  13;  potatoes  averaging  21;  barley 
averaging  10;  oats  averaging  22. 

Experiments  conducted  in  Burham,  England,  proved  that 
the  conditions  of  the  air  and  soil  affect  the  action  of  electric 
influence  in  vegetation  very  greatly.  The  presence  of  moisture 
plays  an  important  part;  a  well- watered  field  seeming  to 
have,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  an  advantage  over  one  with 
little  or  no  water.  For  a  number  of  different  plants,  with 
watered  ground,  the  percentage  of  crop  increase  was  for  sugar 
beets  40;  potatoes  31;  rye  grass  129;  while  for  unwatered 
ground  the  increase  was  40,  49,  65  and  97  respectively.  The 
tests  were  conducted  at  the  same  time  so  that  weather  condi- 
tions were  alike  for  each  test. 

Recent  Progress. — In  recent  times  the  sub- 
ject of  conservation  of  natural  resources  has 
been  sharply  forced  upon  the  attention  of  the 
public,  and  of  scientists,  and  investigators  of 


STIMULATION  OF  VEGETATION     265 

the  Department  of  Agriculture  have  been  carry- 
ing on  experiments  to  determine  how  best  to  in- 
crease the  output  of  the  farm.  Engineers  and 


Fig.  52.     Melons  grown  by  the  aid  of  electricity. 

students  have  carefully  analysed  the  practicabil- 
ity of  electric  forcing  with  the  result  that  its 
great  advantages  have  been  generally  recog- 
nised. 

In  The  Electrical  Review  and  Western  Elec- 
trician, of  November  11,  1911,  F.  L.  Cook  in  an 


266  ELECTEICITY 

article  on  "The  Growth  of  Plants  by  Means  of 
Electricity, ' '  reported : 

"A  series  of  investigations  has  just  been  completed  in  one 
of  the  large  greenhouses  of  a  suburb  of  the  city  of  Chicago 
which  should  prove  of  great  import  to  those  interested  in 
the  development  of  the  soil  and  its  products.  This  work  is 
being  carried  on  by  Richard  Gloede,  a  prominent  landscape 
gardener  of  Evanston.  His  building  is  fitted  with  every  facil- 
ity for  making  accurate  and  reliable  tests  as  to  the  action 
of  growing  plants  under  the  stimulus  of  electricity."  .  .  . 

"The  distribution  of  the  electricity  on  this  experimental  acre 
is  by  means  of  a  network  of  wires  2  ft.  to  3  ft.  apart  mounted 
at  a  height  of  about  8  ft.  above  the  ground.  On  this  plot  were 
planted  a  great  variety  of  vegetables,  including  Indian  corn, 
popcorn,  tomatoes,  cantaloupes,  cucumbers,  eggplant,  lettuce, 
radishes,  onions,  peppers,  cauliflower,  cabbage,  carrots,  etc. 
Although  planted  late,  these  vegetables  came  through  a  severe 
drought  much  better  than  similar  unelectrified  plants 
and  reached  maturity  in  a  period  much  less  than  the 
usual  time.  The  current  was  turned  on  the  plot  only 
from  two  to  six  hours  daily,  morning  and  evening,  during 
hot,  dry  weather,  although  for  longer  periods  when  the  air 
was  moist.  The  energy  consumption  was  almost  negligible, 
it  appears,  for,  although  no  indicating  instruments  were  used, 
the  electricity  bills  averaged  only  $2  to  $3  per  month  during 
the  treatment  of  the  acre. 

"As  an  example  of  the  superior  growing  power  of  plants 
when  subject  to  electrification,  even  newly  laid  sod  along 
pathways  through  the  acre  plot  was  found  to  thrive  and  grow 
green,  while  the  old  rooted  grass  at  other  parts  of  the  grounds 
was  burned  badly  by  drought." 

Sir  Oliver  Lodge  has  recently  contributed 
important  advances  to  the  science  of  electric 
stimulation  of  vegetation,  and  it  is  now  recog- 


STIMULATION  OF  VEGETATION     267 

nized  commercially.  The  cost  of  an  installa- 
tion sufficient  to  cover  300  acres  is  about  $7,500. 
The  action  has  the  same  effect  as  sunshine. 
Plants  are  always  taking  electricity  from  the 
air  and  the  apparatus  only  supplies  them  with 
more.  It  is  worked  from  spring  until  the  end 
of  summer. 

The  use  of  electric  current  for  stimulation  of 
plant  growth  promises  to  be  highly  profitable 
both  for  the  farmer  and  for  the  central  station, 
as  surplus  electricity  can  be  sold  for  the  pur- 
pose at  a  very  low  rate,  as  such  usage  enables 
the  establishment  of  a  uniform  loajd  factor 
throughout  the  day. 

Air  Nitrate. — Of  the  great  triumphs  of  mod- 
ern electric-chemistry,  the  reduction  of  the  ni- 
trogen of  the  air  to  a  commercial  product,  the 
creation  of  a  fertiliser  for  the  field  out  of  the 
air  that  blows  across  it,  is  one  of  the  most  no- 
table that  has  ever  been  achieved.  It  is  far 
reaching  in  effect  and  appeals  to  the  imagina- 
tion as  few  discoveries  have  ever  done. 

The  great  value  of  the  discovery  is  realised 
but  little  by  the  general  public;  but  it  may  be 
understood  when  the  fact  is  known  that  the 


268  ELECTEICITY 

natural  supply  of  nitrate,  or  saltpetre,  is  near 
the  point  of  exhaustion.  Nitric  acid  is  one  of 
the  fundamentals  in  the  arts,  and  nitrate  is  the 
principal  fertiliser  of  the  world,  while  salt- 
petre is  an  indispensable  element  of  explosives. 
Besides  these,  there  are  a  great  number  of  im- 
portant uses  of  nitrate,  such  as  in  the  form  of 
ammonia,  etc.,  and  a  synthetic  source  of  supply 
is  therefore  of  enormous  importance. 

The  Problem  of  Fertilising. — One  of  the 
greatest  problems  of  the  present  time  is  to  in- 
crease the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  growing 
crops  are  constantly  extracting  from  the  soil 
three  chemical  substances,  nitrogen,  potassium, 
and  phosphoric  acid,  and  it  is  necessary  that 
they  should  be  replaced  in  a  form  available  for 
plant  life.  The  nitrate  thus  far  fed  to  the  soil 
has  come  entirely  from  manures  or  of  late  years 
from  deposits  of  nitrate  of  soda  taken  from 
South  America,  and  from  sulphate  of  ammonia 
recovered  as  a  by-product  when  coal-gas  is 
made.  The  output  of  Chili  saltpetre,  or  nitrate 
of  soda,  is  at  the  rate  of  1,500,000  tons  per  an- 
num, and  it  has  doubled  in  the  last  fifteen  years, 
while  500,000  tons  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  are 


STIMULATION  OF  VEGETATION     269 

produced  annually.  Owing  to  its  high  cost  and 
scarcity,  the  demand  is  very  much  less  than 
would  be  the  case  for  a  cheaper  fertiliser. 

What  the  proper  use  of  a  fertiliser  means  may  be  seen  by 
a  comparison  of  American  yields  on  recently  virgin  soil  with 
German  yields  on  a  soil  under  cultivation  for  centuries  before 
America  was  discovered.  Germany  averages  31J  bushels  of 
wheat  per  acre  to  13  in  America,  rye  29  to  16,  oats  51  to  25, 
and  potatoes  158  to  83.  If  American  farmers  should  increase 
their  yields  to  the  German  averages,  it  would  mean  a  doubling 
of  the  gross  output  of  our  products.  Yet  Germany  was  for- 
merly but  little  if  any  in  advance  of  America.  The  intelli- 
gent selection  of  seed  and  free  use  of  fertilisers  has  made  the 
change.  As  much  as  2650  pounds  of  potash  salts  and  manure 
are  used  per  acre  in  Germany  on  cultivated  lands,  while  but 
311  pounds  are  used  in  the  United  States.  .  The  German 
farmer  practically  uses  his  land  as  a  mechanism  for  trans- 
forming fertiliser  into  products. 

Importance  of  Air  Nitrate. — The  production 
of  nitrates  from  the  air  assures  inexhaustible 
supplies  of  a  highly  necessary  substance,  since 
the  air  contains  about  80  per  cent,  of  nitrogen; 
and  in  addition  it  affords  a  means  of  more  com- 
pletely utilising  our  waterpowers  by  transform- 
ing their  surplus  energy  into  soil  fertility. 

The  original  inventor  of  the  electro-chemical 
process  for  manufacturing  nitrate  fertilisers 
and  other  chemical  productions  from  the  air 
was  Professor  Birkeland,  a  Norwegian.  After 


270  ELECTEICITY 

Professor  Birkeland  had  made  his  discovery, 
some  nine  or  ten  years  ago,  he  associated  him- 
self with  Mr.  S.  Eyde,  an  experienced  engineer. 
They  organised  a  stock-company,  with  a  capi- 
tal of  $134,000  and  built  their  first  plant  at 
Notodden,  in  Telemarken,  some  70  miles  from 
Christiania. 

The  process,  briefly  stated,  is  to  pass  air 
through  an  enormous  electrical  flame,  of  about 
75  inches  width,  which  heats  the  air  to  3000  de- 
grees Celsius,  and  the  gases  are  then  cooled  and 
passed  over  lime  in  water,  resulting  in  calcium 
nitrate,  which  is  sold  in  granular  form  like  salt. 

The  company  later  consolidated  with  a  Ger- 
man concern,  which  had  added  improvements, 
and  there  are  now  several  branch  companies, 
with  a  capital  of  over  $16,000,000  whose  annual 
production  will  soon  reach  80,000  tons. 

Two  German  chemists,  Adolph  Frank  and 
Nikodemus  Caro,  of  the  technical  staff  of  the 
Siemens-Halske  Co.,  a  great  electrical  firm,  have 
discovered  an  entirely  different  process  of  ex- 
tracting nitrate  from  the  air.  They  combine 
coke  and  lime  at  3000  degrees  Centigrade,  re- 
sulting in  a  substance  that  has  a  great  affinity 


STIMULATION  OF  VEGETATION     271 

for  nitrogen,  and  draws  it  directly  from  the  air. 
This  is  known  as  the  cyanamid  process  and  is  a 
strong  competitor  of  the  Birkeland-Eyde  proc- 
ess. Cyanamid  sells  at  $55  to  $60  a  ton  at 
present.  Tests  by  37  governmental  stations  in 
Europe  show"  its  superior  value  to  Chili  salt- 
petre as  a  fertiliser.  It  is  also  easier  to  handle 
in  its  commercial  form,  being  less  liable  to 
liquify  or  to  cake.  Six  companies  are  already 
manufacturing  it  in  Europe,  turning  out  167,- 
000  tons  annually,  and  other  companies  are  be- 
ginning. A  plant  has  been  erected  on  the  Cana- 
dian side  of  Niagara  Falls,  and  others  are  pro- 
jected in  Japan,  Mexico  and  elsewhere. 

An  American  Waste  of  Opportunity. — The 
United  States  has  $70,000,000  invested  in  fertil- 
iser factories  of  various  kinds.  Chilian  salt- 
petre to  the  value  of  $75,000,000  annually,  at 
2%  times  its  former  price,  is  exported  by  Chili, 
$15,000,000  worth  of  which  comes  to  the  United 
States.  While,  with  almost  criminal  careless- 
ness, we  disregard  our  own  resources,  and  allow 
phosphate  rock  to  be  exported  in  large  quanti- 
ties, our  imports  of  fertiliser  of  various  kinds 
are  $17,000,000  in  excess  of  our  exports  annu- 


272  ELECTEICITY 

ally.  The  whole  of  this  amount  could  be  saved 
by  the  erection  of  hydroelectric  plants  to  utilise 
our  vast  wasted  waterpower  and  to  manufac- 
ture air  nitrates. 


Fig.  53.     Office  of  a  nursery,  showing  flowers  electrically  forced. 

The  opportunity  of  the  United  States  in  this 
respect  is  unusual,  since  we  have  30,000,000  hp. 
in  waterpower  running  to  waste.  If  properly 
utilised  by  means  of  storage,  economically  con- 
structed and  properly  designed  plants,  follow- 


STIMULATION  OF  VEGETATION     273 

ing  the  latest  European  practice,  this  would 
amount  to  from  150,000,000  to  200,000,000  horse- 
power. A  steam  horsepower  per  year  costs 
$20,  so  that  a  waste  of  power  of  $4,000,000,000 
is  occurring  annually. 

Promotion  of  the  Air  Nitrate  Industry. — 
The  manufacture  of  air  nitrate  is  of  course  an 
exacting  engineering  and  manufacturing  prop- 
osition. It  has  been  neglected  in  the  United 
States  through  the  demands  of  other  manufac- 
tures for  capital.  Large  land  owners  and 
bankers  in  agricultural  regions  should  co-oper- 
ate and  advance  the  capital  necessary  for  such 
undertakings.  They  would  not  only  profit  di- 
rectly in  the  manufacture  of  air  nitrate,  but 
would  have  the  further  benefit  of  greatly  in- 
creased yields  and  profits  from  the  land  of  their 
regions.  The  farmer  should  help  himself  in 
this  respect  and  not  wait  on  the  slow  progress 
of  the  distant  city  banker. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  are  the  principles  of  electrically  stimulating  vege- 

tation ? 

2.  How  is  the  electric  current  applied? 

3.  How  can  the  growth  of  vegetation  be  stimulated  by  means 

of  electric  lights? 


274  ELECTRICITY 

4.  Describe  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Pringsheim. 

5.  Describe  the  experiment  conducted  at  Burham,  Eng. 

6.  What  is  the  yield  per  acre  on  German  farms  as  compared 

with  American  farms? 

7.  How  much  potash-salts  is  used  on  German  farms  as  com- 

pared with  American  farms? 

8.  What  is  air  nitrate? 

9.  Describe   the   Birkeland-Eyde   process. 

10.  Describe  the  Frank-Caro  process. 

11.  How  would  the  manufacture  of  air-nitrates  affect  farm 

products  ? 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Alcohol,  as  fuel  for  engines, 

67,  68 
Alternating       current,       the, 

qualities  of,  83 

Bath,  heating  of,  197,  203 
Belt-transmission,    rules    for, 

97 
Belts,    rules    for    estimating, 

100 
British  thermal  units,  59,  63, 

66 
By-products  of  the  farm,   13, 

119-129 

Capital  for  farming  opera- 
tions, 37 

Cattle-feed  as  a  by-product, 
122 

Central  stations,  27,  31,  35, 
40 

Cider  as  a  by-product,   121 

Coal,  qualities  of,  58 

Cold  storage,  advantages  of, 
16,  19 

Colours  of  shades  and  globes 
compared,  221;  of  walls 
considered,  221 

Cooking,  electric,  22,  194,  196, 
199-202 

Co-operation  in  electric  serv- 
ice, 34,  103 

Cost  of  electric  operations, 
105-117;  of  electric  service, 
26,  31,  48 

Currents,  electric,  character- 
istics of,  81-83 


277 


Dairy  work  by  electric  power, 

109,  113 
Direct  current,  the,  qualities 

of,  81 
Distributing  systems,  29,  80- 

85 

Electricity,  service  of  on 
farms,  3-6 

Engines  for  steam-electric 
generation,  61;  for  gas,  65; 
for  gasoline,  67;  for  petro- 
leum, 69 

Fans,  electric,  utilities  of, 
175-179 

Fertilisers,  supply  of,  268, 
271 

Flatirons,    electric,    196 

Fodder-cutting  by  electric 
power,  108,  117 

Friction-wire,  the,  for  tree- 
sawing,  186-189 

Fruit,  cold  storage  of,  131 

Gas  engines,  65 
Gasoline  engines,  67 
Gas-producer   plant,   a,   65-67 
German      agriculture,      supe- 
riority of,  158 

Hay-hoist,    electric,    115,    149 
Heating    by    electricity,    193- 

209;    for  rooms,  conditions 

of,  206,  209 
House      lighting,      directions 

for,   219-221 


278 


INDEX 


Horsepower  required  for  va- 
rious industries,  103 

Hydroelectric  generation,  42- 
58;  transmission,  255 

Incubators,    electric,    189-191 

Internal-combustion  engines, 
64 

Ironing  clothes  with  electric 
flatirons,  196 

Irrigation  by  electric  flat- 
irons,  196 

Irrigation  by  electric  power, 
245-260 

Lamps,    arc,    214;     incandes- 
cent, 212-214;   216-221 
Lighting,  electric,  210-224 

Mazda  (tungsten)  lamp,  216- 
221 

Meals,  electric  devices  for 
preparing,  194,  196 

Meat,  grinding  and  stuffing 
machines  for,  114 

Milking  machines,  electric, 
168-173 

Milling  by  electric  power,  116 

Motors,  electric,  convenience 
of,  14,  88;  economy  of,  89- 
95;  operation  of,  96;  port- 
able, 102 

Nitrates,  electric  derivation 
of  from  air,  267,  269,  273 

Oxygen,  qualities  of,   180-184 
Ozone,  qualities  of,  179,  183 
Ozonisers,   electric,    179-184 

Petroleum   engines,   69 
Plant  growth,  electric  stimu- 
lation of,  261-268 
Ploughing,    electric,    18,    150- 
163 


Potatoes,  utilisation  of,  122- 
129 

Pulleys,  rules  for  estimating, 
101 

Pumping  plants  for  irriga- 
tion, 257-260 

Railroads,  electric,  on  farms, 

147 
Eefrigerating        plants        on 

farms,   135-140,   182 
Root-cutter,  electric,   115 

Starch  as  a  by-product,  121 
Steam-power     generation     of 

electricity,   58-64 
Storage     batteries,      function 

and  service  of,  75-80 
Sugar,  as  a  by-product,  121 

Technical  knowledge,  im- 
portance of,  7 

Telephones,  rural,  advantages 
of,  225-244 ;  construction 
of,  231-244 

Threshing  by  electric  power, 
107 

Transformers,    portable,    85 

Transmission  lines,  electric, 
85 

Transportation  of  farm-prod- 
ucts, 141-149 

Tree-felling  by  the  friction- 
wire,  186-189;  by  electric 
sawing,  184 

Trucks,  electric,  utilities  of, 
144 

Tungsten  lamp,  the,  216-221 

Vacuum-cleaning  by  electric 
power,  110,  173 

Washing  machines,  electric, 
113 

Water,  heating  of  by  electric- 
ity, 202 


INDEX  279 

Waterpower,    availability    of,  Windmills  as  a  source  of  elec- 
42,  46  trie    energy,    11,    71;    con- 
Water    supply,    domestic,    un-  struction   and   management 

der  electric  control,  165-168  of,  71-75 
Water-wheels,  proper  form  of, 
43 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR 


Hydroelectric  Developments 
and  Engineering 


BY 

FRANK  KOESTER 

Consulting   Engineer 

8x11  INCHES  479  PAGES 

$5.00  NET  500  ILLUS. 

Forty  Per  Cent,  of  tnis  Information 
Pertains  to  European  Practice 

Adopted  as  Text  by  Leading  Universities 

SOME  OPINIONS. 

"This  work  dealing  with  a  subject  of  great  interest  to  engi- 
neers in  all  lines  of  professional  work,  is  written  by  a  man  who 
is  evidently  well  acquainted  with  both  the  principles  and  prac- 
tice of  this  important  branch  of  engineering.  The  plan  of  the 
book  is  excellent,  the  main  features  of  the  subject  being  so 
grouped  as  to  afford  a  clear,  logical  exposition  of  the  whole." — 
The  School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  Columbia  University,  New  York. 

"Mr.  Koester  has  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  evolution 
of  the  past  15  to  20  years  in  the  great  field  of  hydroelectric  de- 
velopment, and  has  brought  his  material  into  compact,  sequential 
form,  with  the  result  that  we  are  indebted  to  him  for  an  ex- 
ceedingly interesting  volume.  What  constitutes  its  value  in  no 
small  degree  is  the  international  nature  of  its  data.  The  reader 
will  find  in  this  handsome,  well-written,  well-indexed  volume  the 
latest  ideas,  "fads  and  fancies,"  and  real  scientific  triumphs  of 
the  hydroelectric  art." — Electrical  World,  New  York. 

"At  this  time,  when  attention  is  strongly  being  drawn  toward 
the  necessity  of  a  strict  economy  in  the  conservation  of  national 
resources,  such  a  book  is  timely.  The  author  has  not  only  given 
many  examples  of  the  most  instructive  types  in  modern  practice, 
but  he  has  written  the  book  in  a  lucid  and  entertaining  manner 
and  it  will  undoubtedly  form  a  valuable  addition  to  technical 
literature." — Indicator.  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Ho- 
boken,  N.  J. 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR 


Steam-Electric  Power  Plants 


BY 

FRANK  KOESTER 

Consulting  Engineer 

8x11  INCHES  473  PAGES 

$5.00  NET  500  ILLUS, 

Recommended  by  Technical  Journals 
to   Experts  and  Advanced  Engineers 

Adopted  as  Text  by  Leading  Universities 

SOME  OPINIONS. 

"A  long-felt  want  has  been  met  with  the  issue  of  this  work, 
as  it  supplies  the  consulting  engineer,  as  well  as  contractors 
and  manufacturers,  with  complete  an'd  comprehensive  informa- 
tion as  to  the  design,  construction  and  operation  of  steam- 
electric  power  plants.  Mr.  Koester  has  an  international  repu- 
tation in  the  engineering  profession,  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  whole  subject  has  been  treated  by  him,  embracing  the  entire 
field,  from  the  coal  pile  to  the  bus-bars,  is  fully  up  to  his  high 
standard." — Electrical  Review,  New  Jork. 

"The  author  really  does  more  than  carry  his  immediate  ob- 
ject, for  the  volume  contains  a  good  deal  more  that  may  not  be 
"essential"  to  the  engineer,  but  is  nevertheless  instructive  and 
useful.  The  treatment  of  the  subject  is  systematic." — Engineer- 
ing, London. 

"It  would  be  'difficult  to  mention  any  detail  that  it  not 
touched  upon  and  its  relation  to  other  details  in  the  entire  field 
of  central-station  design  and  equipment.  Illustrations  are 
chosen  with  mature  judgment." — Power  and  The  Engineer,  New 
York. 

"This  book  will  undoubtedly  take  a  high  place  among  the 
classical  works  of  the  industry.  It  is  evidently  the  result  of  an 
exceptional  experience,  such  asr  falls  to  the  lot  of  a  very  few 
engineers,  and  the  broad-minde'd  and  liberal  manner  in  which 
various  equipments  are  described  and  criticised  is  most  refresh- 
ing. It  is  set  out  from  the  beginning  that  no  hard  and  fast 
rules  can  be  prescribed  for  power  plant  designs,  as  hardly  any 
two  electric  services  have  similar  conditions  and  requirements. 
It  is  to  be  highly  commended,  not  only  to  those  engage'd  in  the 
design  of  pewter  plants,  but  to  those  engaged  in  their  operation." 
— The  Electrician,  London. 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR 


TLe    Price     of    Inefficiency 


BY 

FRANK  KOESTER 

Consulting   Engineer 

OCTAVO  CLOTH 

$2.00  NET  BOUND 

TABLE  OP  CONTENTS. 

Introduction;  The  Situation;  Our  Political  System;  Adminis- 
trative Waste;  What  is  Conservation?  Conservation  of  Human 
Life;  By-Products  of  Inefficiency;  Private  Monopoly;  Govern- 
mental Socialism;  Govermental  Socialism  in  Germany;  Municipal 
Socialism;  Commission  Government;  Industrial  Handicaps,  I; 
Industrial  Handicaps,  II;  How  to  Supplant  the  Trusts;  Bust- 
ness  is  Business;  Stimulating  Progress;  Undeveloped  Resources; 
The  Problem  of  Immigration;  The  Right  to  Work;  Social  Insur- 
ance; Tom,  Dick  and  Harry;  Cutting  Out  the  Middleman;  Pub- 
lic Welfare;  Domestic  Relations;  Educational  Systems;  The 
Remedies. 


This  book  lays  bare  in  searching  analysis  and  startling  de- 
ductions, national  ills  and  weaknesses  due  to  inefficiency,  Gov- 
ernmental or  non-Governmental,  and  largely  responsible  for  the 
high  cost  of  living  and  other  harsh  conditions.  It  stands  also 
for  specific  remedies  for  the  staggering  cost,  admittedly  amount- 
ing to  millions  annually,  of  avoidable  waste.  The  author,  an 
engineer  of  international  reputation,  and  now  an  American 
citizen,  writes,  not  as  an  outsider,  but  as  one  who  has  cast  in 
his  lot  here.  His  treatment  shows  the  analytical  mind  of  the 
scientist  and  the  philosophical  breadth  of  the  thinker.  Compari- 
sons with  the  methods  and  results  of  other  countries  give  force 
and  point  to  both  his  constructive  and  destructive  critif-ism. 


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